Pi 

sKl 

v ^ 

Llrrrvil  AN! 

)D1 

f 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/chatsonoldcopperOOburg 


CHATS  ON  OLD 
COPPER  AND  BRASS 


BOOKS  FOR  COLLECTORS 

With  Frontispieces  and  many  Illustrations 
Large  Crown  Svo,  cloth. 

CHATS  ON  ENGLISH  CHINA. 

By  Arthur  Hayden. 

CHATS  ON  OLD  FURNITURE 

By  Arthur  Hayden. 

CHATS  ON  OLD  PRINTS. 

By  Arthur  Hayden. 

CHATS  ON  COSTUME. 

By  G.  WOOLLISCROFT  RHEAD. 

CHATS  ON  OLD  LACE  AND  NEEDLEWORK. 

By  E.  L.  Lowes. 

CHATS  ON  ORIENTAL  CHINA. 

By  J.  F.  Blacker. 

CHATS  ON  OLD  MINIATURES. 

By  J.  J.  Foster,  F.S.A. 

CHATS  ON  ENGLISH  EARTHENWARE. 

By  Arthur  Hayden. 

CHATS  ON  AUTOGRAPHS. 

By  A.  M.  BROADLEY. 

CHATS  ON  PEWTER. 

By  H.  J.  L.  J.  MassS,  M.A. 

CHATS  ON  POSTAGE  STAMPS. 

By  Fred.  J.  Melville. 

CHATS  ON  OLD  JEWELLERY  AND  TRINKETS. 

By  MacIver  Percival. 

CHATS  ON  COTTAGE  AND  FARMHOUSE  FURNITURE 

By  Arthur  Hayden. 

CHATS  ON  OLD  COINS. 

By  Fred.  W.  Burgess. 

CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS. 

By  Fred.  W.  Burgess. 


In  Preparation. 

CHATS  ON  BARGAINS. 

By  Charles  E.  Jerningham. 

CHATS  ON  JAPANESE  PRINTS. 

By  Arthur  Davison  Ficke. 

CHATS  ON  HOUSEHOLD  CURIOS. 

By  Fred.  W.  Burgess. 

LONDON:  T.  FISHER  UNWIN. 
NEW  YORK  : F.  A.  STOKES  COMPANY. 


FIG.  I. — FINE  COPPER  EWER. 

{In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 
South  Kensington.) 


Frontispiece 


Chats  on  Old 
Copper  and  Brass 


BY 

FRED.  W.  BURGESS 

AUTHOR  OF  “CHATS  ON  OLD  COINS,”  ETC. 


WITH  FRONTISPIECE  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  FROM 
PHOTOGRAPHS  AND  WASH  DRAWINGS 


LONDON 

T.  FISHER  UNWIN 

ADELPHI  TERRACE 


First  Published  in  IQ14 


[All  rights  reserved) 


PREFACE 


The  collection  of  old  metal  may  at  first  sight  appear 
a somewhat  unattractive  hobby  ; a moment’s  reflec- 
tion, however,  brings  to  mind  the  wonderful  art 
treasures  of  metal  in  our  museums,  gathered  together 
from  many  parts  of  the  world  ; not  necessarily  of 
the  precious  metals,  for  many  of  the  most  cunningly 
contrived  objects  of  antiquarian  research  are  of 
copper  in  one  or  more  of  its  numerous  forms  of 
alloy. 

Copper  is  the  basis  of  so  many  alloys  of  which 
metallic  curios  are  formed,  that  in  its  combination 
with  other  metals  it  gives  the  collector  an  almost 
inexhaustible  field  of  research.  It  was  the  metal 
of  the  ancients,  which  in  combination  with  tin  gave 
them  that  useful  metal  with  which  to  fashion 
weapons  of  offence  and  defence,  and  later,  as  the 
Bronze  Age  advanced,  utilitarian  objects  of  household 
economy. 

Collectors  find  the  Age  of  Metals  unfolding  as 
they  arrange  their  collections  with  orderly  sequence, 
and  thereby  trace  the  progress  of  artificers  through- 
out the  periods  which  have  intervened  since  the 
first  bronze  celt  was  moulded  to  the  present  day. 


8 


PREFACE 


Although  this  is  the  Age  of  Iron  and  the  numerous 
materials  which  metallurgical  research  and  scientific 
skill  have  produced,  copper,  and  brass  in  its  varied 
forms,  are  still  prominent,  and  the  almost  inexhaus- 
tible supply  of  copper  with  which  Nature  has  pro- 
vided us  is  still  being  drawn  from. 

In  this  work  the  curios  and  artistic  objects  of 
use  and  ornament  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
contributed  by  craftsmen  of  many  ages  and  of  many 
countries,  are  passed  in  review.  The  object  of  so 
doing  has  been  to  awaken  still  greater  interest — 
if  that  is  possible — in  the  collection  of  copper  and 
brass,  and  to  preserve  to  futurity  metal  objects  from 
which  the  utilitarian  purpose  of  their  manufacture  is 
fast  waning — if  not  already  gone. 

Although  the  rarest  and  most  costly  objects  are 
to  be  found  in  museums  and  the  galleries  of  the 
wealthy,  there  are  many  still  in  the  homes  of  the 
people,  and  there  are  many  who  seek  and  obtain 
pleasure  and  delight  from  the  collection  of  the 
curious  and  the  beautiful  who  cannot  afford  the 
unique  specimens  which  are  so  costly.  To  such  this 
book  should  appeal,  for  the  descriptions  and  the 
illustrations  have  been  drawn  from  many  sources, 
and  their  selection  has  by  no  means  been  confined 
to  the  rarer  types. 

The  illustrations  are  reproductions  of  photographs 
which  have  been  willingly  furnished  by  owners  of  col- 
lections and  museum  authorities.  A large  number, 
too,  have  been  specially  drawn  for  this  work  by  my 
daughter,  Miss  Ethel  Burgess. 

I gratefully  acknowledge  the  kindness  of  those 


PREFACE 


9 


who  have  allowed  me  to  make  use  of  objects  in 
their  collections.  I would  especially  bear  testimony 
to  the  courtesy  of  the  Directors  of  the  British 
Museum  who  have  authorized  their  printers,  The 
University  Press,  Oxford,  to  furnish  blocks  of 
some  of  the  most  interesting  metal  objects  in  the 
Galleries.  The  Director  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  has  granted  facilities  for  the  reproduction 
of  some  of  the  beautiful  metal-work  at  South 
Kensington. 

My  thanks  are  especially  due  to  Mr.  Guy  Laking, 
M.V.O.,  F.S.A.,  who,  although  in  the  midst  of  the 
removal  of  the  London  Museum  from  Kensington 
Palace  to  its  new  home  at  Stafford  House,  has 
kindly  supplied  several  photographs  of  scarce  metal 
objects.  Special  drawings  have  been  made  of  several 
representative  objects  in  the  Guildhall  Museum, 
through  the  courtesy  of  the  Curator. 

Permission  has  been  granted  to  reproduce  photo- 
graphs and  illustrations  of  objects  in  several  of  the 
more  important  provincial  Museums,  and  in  several 
instances  some  very  interesting  information  has  been 
given  by  the  Curators.  Among  others  I should 
like  to  give  the  names  of  Mr.  F.  R.  Rowley,  Curator 
of  the  Royal  Albert  Memorial  Museum  at  Exeter  ; 
Mr.  T.  Sheppard,  F.G.S.,  F.S.A.Scot.,  Curator  of 
the  Municipal  Museum,  Hull  ; Dr.  Hoyle,  Director 
of  the  National  Museum  of  Wales,  Cardiff ; Mr. 
J.  A.  Charlton  Deas,  F.R.HistS.,  Director  of  the 
Museum  and  Art  Gallery,  Sunderland ; Mr.  Thos. 
Midgley,  F.R.Met.S.,  Chadwick  Museum,  Bolton ; 
Mr.  R.  Rathbun,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  United 


10 


PREFACE 


States  National  Museum,  Washington  ; and  the  Town 
Clerk  of  Winchester. 

I am  further  indebted  to  Messrs.  Glendining  & Co., 
Ltd.,  who  have  given  me  permission  to  reproduce 
some  beautiful  Oriental  metal-work  which  has 
recently  passed  under  the  hammer  in  their  London 
Galleries  ; also  to  Messrs.  Herbert  Benham  & Co.,  for 
a drawing  of  the  copper  ball  and  cross  of  St.  Paul’s  ; 
and  to  Mr.  Amor,  of  St.  James’s,  S.W.,  The  Edward 
Gallery,  of  King  Street,  S.W.,  and  Mr.  Chas.  Wayte, 
of  Edenbridge,  who  have  given  me  photographs  of 
rare  pieces  of  art  metal- work. 

I have  endeavoured  to  refrain  from  technicalities 
or  dry  descriptions  ; but  some  of  the  chapters  have 
necessarily  a touch  of  the  workshop  and  the  foundry 
about  them.  I can  assure  my  readers,  however, 
that  the  “ metallic  ring  ” is  inseparable  from  copper 
and  brass,  and  that  the  pleasures  of  possession  will 
be  added  to  by  the  better  understanding  it  will 
impart  to  those  who  collect  and  admire  similar 
objects  to  those  referred  to  in  this  work. 

FRED.  W.  BURGESS. 

London,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE  . . . . . .7 

GLOSSARY  . . . . . . 23 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  METAL  AND  ITS  ALLOYS  . . . *35 

Ancient  bronze — The  bronzes  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  Eastern 
nations — Copper  for  enamels — The  brass  of  commerce — Bell 
metal — The  sources  of  copper — The  making  of  brass — 
Copper  as  an  alloy — The  characteristics  of  metal. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  HUNTING  GROUND  . . . . 5 1 

In  buried  cities — Turned  up  by  the  plough — Among  Saxon 
and  Norman  remains  — In  hidden  chambers — In  local 
museums — Dealers’  shops — The  engraver’s  art. 


CHAPTER  III 

PREHISTORIC  BRONZES  . . . . -63 

The  dawn  of  progress — London  relics — The  beauty  of 
ancient  art — The  useful  bronzes,  the  prototypes  of  later 
brasses — The  forger  at  work. 

11 


12 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  IV 

PAGE 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CURIOS  . . . -77 

Grecian  bronzes — Relics  of  Roman  occupation — Interesting 
toilet  requisites — Artificial  lighting — Statues  and  monuments 
— Romano-British  art — A well-staged  exhibit. 


CHAPTER  V 

MEDIEVAL  ANTIQUITIES  . . . -93 

Domestic  brasswork — Metal  signs  and  badges — Ornamental 
trinkets — Arms  and  armour. 


CHAPTER  VI 


LATER  METAL- WORK  . . . . .Ill 

The  influence  of  the  Guilds — Architectural  metal- work — 

The  door  knocker — Interior  metal-work. 


CHAPTER  VII 

CHURCH  BRASSWORK  . . • • • *33 

Candlesticks— Altar  brasses— Metal  architectural  ornament 
— Memorial  brasses. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


domestic  utensils  . . • • • *53 

The  kitchen— The  houseplace— Chimney  and  other  orna- 
ments—Classified  arrangement. 


CONTENTS 


13 


CHAPTER  IX 

PAGE 

CANDLESTICKS  AND  LAMPS  . . . . 1 93 

Fire-making  apparatus  — Candles  and  candlesticks  — Oil 
lamps  and  lanterns. 


CHAPTER  X 

BELLS  AND  BELL-METAL  CASTINGS  . . -215 

The  founders’  secrets — Great  bells  of  historic  fame — The 
uses  of  bells — Old  mortars. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CIVIC  EMBLEMS  AND  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  . 229 

The  ancient  horn — The  badge  of  office — Weighing  instru- 
ments— Measures  in  Exeter  Museum — Our  standards. 


CHAPTER  XII 

BRONZES  AND  THEIR  REPLICAS  . . *247 

Early  figure  modelling — Statues  in  public  places — Replicas 
in  miniature. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  . . . 26 1 

Countries  of  origin — How  some  Oriental  curios  are  derived 
— A wealth  of  metal  on  view — Various  Indian  wares — 
Chinese  and  Japanese  art. 


14 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XIV 
IDOLS  AND  TEMPLE  RELICS 


PAGE 

. 289 


Varied  shrines  and  many  idols-— Indian  idols — Temple 
vases  and  ornaments. 


CHAPTER  XV 


NATIVE  METAL-WORK  . 


• 3°3 


Outside  influences — Benin  bronzes— Other  African  curios. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

CONTINENTAL  COPPER  AND  BRASS  . . . 313 

Italian  bronzes — French  art — Dutch  brasswork  — German 
metal- work. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

SUNDIALS,  CLOCKS,  AND  BRASS  INSTRUMENTS  . . 327 

The  mystery  of  dialling — Some  old  dials — Antique  clocks 
— Old  watches — The  weather — Scientific  instruments. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


ENAMELS  ON  COPPER  .....  347 

Processes  of  enamelling— Chinese  and  Japanese  enamels — 
British  enamels. 


CONTENTS 


15 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PAGE 

MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  . . .361 

Tobacco-boxes  and  pipe-stoppers — Snuff-boxes  — Handles 
and  handle-plates  — Horse-trappings  — War  relics  — Tiny 
curios — Replicas. 


CHAPTER  XX 

WRINKLES  FOR  COLLECTORS  ....  385 

Cleaning  copper  and  brass — Lacquering  metal — Polishing 
brass — Restoring  antique  finishes — Using  the  burnisher — 

Brass  rubbings. 


INDEX  . 


395 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. 

1.  FINE  COPPER  EWER  ....  Frontispiece 

PAGE 

2.  (i)  BRONZE  BUCKLER  FROM  THE  THAMES  VALLEY.  39 

3.  (2)  ANOTHER  BUCKLER  FROM  ABERYSTWYTH  . 39 

4.  PART  OF  THE  HOARD  OF  IMPLEMENTS  OF  THE 

LATE  BRONZE  AGE,  FOUND  IN  KING’S  CO., 
IRELAND  . . . . . .55 

5.  (i)  BRONZE  CALDRON  . . . . .67 

6.  (2)  URN  OF  THE  LATER  BRONZE  AGE  . * 67 

7.  BRONZE  SAUCEPAN  WITH  FOLIATED  HANDLE  . 85 

8.  EWER  OF  HAMMERED  COPPER  . . .85 

9.  LAMP  OF  CAST  BRONZE  . . . .85 

10.  LAMP  OF  BRASS  INLAID  WITH  COPPER  . . 85 

11.  BRASS  AQUAMANILE  (SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY)  . 99 

12.  BRASS  COUVRE  DE  FEU , A RARE  EARLY  PIECE  . II3 

13.  COPPER  VANE  ON  BILLINGSGATE  FISH  MARKET  . 119 

14.  THE  CITY  DRAGON  AS  A WEATHER-VANE  . . 119 


17 


18 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

15.  COPPER  COCK  VANE,  ONE  OF  FOUR  ON  SMITH- 

FIELD  MARKET  . . . . .119 

16.  BRONZE  KNOCKER  OF  THE  ARMORIAL  TYPE  . 129 

1 7.  BRASS  DROP  KNOCKER  IN  THE  FORM  OF  A DOLPHIN  . 129 

18.  BRASS  WELL  BUCKET  . . . . . 1 29 

19.  CURIOUS  DOUBLE  CANDLESTICK  . . .135 

20.  VENETIAN  CANDELABRUM  (ONE  OF  A PAIR)  . 141 


21.  BRONZE  INCENSE  BURNER  AND  INCENSE  BOAT  . 145 

22.  THE  COPPER-GILT  CROSS  ON  ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL  1 49 

23.  SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY  ROOM  IN  THE  LONDON 

MUSEUM  . . . . . .157 

24.  BRONZE  CALDRON  IN  TRINITY  HOSPITAL,  LEICESTER  l6l 

25.  SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY  BRASS  PAN  . . .165 

26.  BRASS  TRIPOD  POT  . . . . .165 

27.  CALDRON  OF  CAST  BRASS  . . . .165 

28.  BRASS  COOKING  VESSEL  WITH  CURVED  HANDLE  . 165 

29.  SKILLET  (BRASS),  THE  HANDLE  OF  WHICH  IS 

ENGRAVED  WITH  THE  MOTTO  “ PITTY  THE 
PORE”  . . . . . .169 

30  AND  31.  BRONZE  COOKING  VESSELS,  ATTRIBUTED  TO 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  169 
32  AND  33.  COPPER  WATER  JUG  AND  WATER  POT  . 1 73 
34.  COPPER  WATER  JUG  AND  COVER  . . .173 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


19 


FIG. 


PAGE 


35-  BRASS  TWO-HANDLED  WATER  VESSEL 

36.  A FINELY-PIERCED  BRASS  TRIVET,  DATED  1668 

37-  BRASS-TOPPED  TRIVET,  WITH  ADDITIONAL  LEG  STAY 

38.  BRASS-TOPPED  TRIVET,  WITH  TURNED  WOOD 

HANDLE  ...... 

39.  COPPER  HELMET-SHAPED  COAL-BOX  . 

40.  BRASS  FOOT-WARMER  WITH  BAIL  HANDLE  . 

41  AND  42.  EARLY  BRASS  OR  BRONZE  HAND-WARMER, 
SHOWN  OPEN  AND  CLOSED 

43  AND  44.  BRASS  CHIMNEY  ORNAMENTS  (ONE  EACH 
OF  PAIRS)  ...... 

45.  BRASS  HORSE,  A CHIMNEY  OR  HOB-GRATE 

ORNAMENT  ...... 

46.  A TWO-TUBE  CANDLE  MOULD  .... 

47.  TWO  TYPES  OF  EARLY  PRICKET  CANDLESTICKS 

48.  PAIR  OF  CANDELABRUM  OF  EARLY  TYPE  (CENTRAL 

FIGURE)  AND  TWO  OLD  OIL  LAMPS 

49.  GROUP  OF  RARE  CANDLESTICKS,  ALMS-DISH,  AND 

EWERS  ...... 

50.  EARLY  BRONZE  LAMP  . . . . . 

51.  OLD  BRASS  LANTERN  . 

52.  BELL  CAST  BY  JOHN  PENNINGTON  AT  EXETER  IN 


173 
1 77 
1 77 

1 77 
181 
185 

185 

189 

189 

197 

197 

201 

205 

209 

213 


1670  . 


2 


223 


20 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

53.  GROUP  OF  BELL-METAL  MORTARS  . . .223 

54.  AN  EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY  FLAGSTAFF  HEAD  OF 

BRASS,  ORIGINALLY  GILT  . . . .233 

55.  THE  WINCHESTER  MOOT  HORN  . . .233 

56.  THE  WINCHESTER  BUSHEL  (STANDARD  MEASURE)  . 2 37 

57.  OLD  MEASURES  BASED  ON  THE  WINCHESTER 

STANDARD  ......  2 37 

58.  A PINT  MEASURE  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  ELIZABETH  . 243 

59.  A WINCHESTER  PINT  OF  THE  DAYS  OF  QUEEN 

ANNE  . . . . . .243 

60.  OLD  FRENCH  WEIGHTS  . . . .243 

61.  BRONZE  TIGER,  BY  ANTOINE  LOUIS  BARYE  . . 25 1 

62.  BRONZE  LION,  BY  BARYE  . . . .255 

63.  BRONZE  STAG,  BY  BARYE  ....  259 

64.  COFFEE-POT  OF  HAMMERED  COPPER  FROM  SYRIA  . 265 

65.  SARACENIC  DECORATED  BRASS  BASIN  . . 269 

66.  JAPANESE  KETTLE  ( YUWAKASHI ) . . .275 

67.  PAIR  OF  VASES  OF  RED-BROWN  COPPER,  RELIEVED 

WITH  BLACK  LAC,  FROM  MORADABAD  . .275 

68.  BRONZE  FIGURE  (ONE  OF  A PAIR)  INLAID  WITH 

SILVER  AND  GOLD  - . . .285 

69.  AMIDA  (INDIAN  IDOL)  .....  291 

70.  A “BLUE”  TARA  (INDIAN  IDOL)  . . .291 


ILLUSTRATIONS  21 

FIG.  PAGE 

7 1.  AMITAYUS  (INDIAN  IDOL)  . . . . 2QI 

72.  VAJRA  DHARMA  (INDIAN  IDOL)  . . . 291 

73.  AMITAYUS  (INDIAN  IDOL)  . . . . 291 

74.  JAPANESE  PRICKET  CANDLESTICK  IN  THE  FORM 

OF  CRANE  AND  TORTOISE  . . . .295 

75.  JAPANESE  RITUAL  VASE  ....  299 

76.  SMALL  TWO-HANDLED  RITUAL  VASE  . . . 299 

77.  CIRCULAR  VASE  ON  STAND  . . . .299 

78.  BRONZE  OVIFORM  EWER  . . . . 315 

79.  BRASS  EWER  WITH  ARTISTIC  HANDLE  . . 315 

80.  DUTCH  ORNAMENTAL  BRASS  CISTERN  . . 323 


81.  FRENCH  EWER  OR  TANKARD  WITH  FANCY  HANDLE  323 

82.  FRENCH  EWER  WITH  GROTESQUE  MOUTH  (SIX- 

TEENTH century)  . . . . .323 

83.  EARLY  DIALS— ON  THE  LEFT  AN  ARMILLARY  DIAL  ; 

IN  THE  CENTRE  PILLAR  DIAL  ; AND  ON  THE 


RIGHT  A RING  DIAL  . . . • 33 1 

84.  CURIOUS  OLD  MICROSCOPE,  MADE  IN  1780  . . 331 

85.  ENGRAVED  POCKET  CLOCK  . . • -337 

86.  A HANDSOME  BRONZE  BAROMETER  . . -343 

87.  BOWL  OF  THE  MING  PERIOD  . . . -353 

88.  BOX  OF  PEKIN  ENAMEL  ....  353 


22 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

89.  MING  BOWL  . . . . . .353 

90.  FINE  ALTAR  SET  OF  CLOISONNE  ENAMELS  (CH5IEN 

LUNG  PERIOD)  .....  359 

91.  COLLECTION  OF  BRASS  AMULETS  (HARNESS  BRASSES)  37 1 


glossary 


GLOSSARY 


Astrolabe. — The  astrolabe  is  an  instrument  which 
was  largely  used  in  taking  the  altitude  of  the  sun  or 
stars  at  sea.  It  was  well  known  to  the  Greeks,  and 
takes  its  names  from  two  Greek  words,  meaning 
a star  and  to  take.  Perfected  by  the  Arabs,  the 
instrument  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  the 
tenth  century.  It  is  said  that  the  most  famous 
examples  are  to  be  seen  in  the  museums  at  Madrid 
and  Florence.  There  is  one  in  the  British  Museum, 
which  was  made  for  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  in 
1574- 

Barrow. — Mounds  in  which  bronze  celts,  knives, 
spear-heads,  and  food  receptacles  are  found  along 
with  the  remains  of  chieftains  and  others  of  the 
prehistoric  peoples  once  inhabiting  this  country. 
The  term  “ barrow  ” originally  denoted  a “ little 
hill.”  Round  barrows  are  the  most  common  form, 
although  some  are  oval  and  some  of  the  “ long 
barrow  ” type.  The  methods  of  burial  differed,  but 
in  most  instances  implements  of  stone  or  bronze 
as  well  as  vessels  of  pottery  and  some  trinkets 
belonging  to  the  dead  were  usually  placed  near 
to  the  body. 


25 


26 


GLOSSARY 


Betel-Nut  Boxes. — The  beautifully  ornate  boxes, 
chiefly  found  in  India,  made  for  holding  the  betel- 
nut  and  the  shell  lime  used  by  the  natives  who  chew 
the  leaves  and  nut  of  the  areca  palm. 

Bidri  Metal. — The  metal  objects  known  as  bidri  are 
made  of  an  alloy  of  copper-zinc  and  lead,  damascened 
with  silver,  showing  a peculiarly  striking  contrast  in 
black  and  white.  The  villages  round  Lucknow  are 
famous  for  this  curious  and  effective  inlaid  metal  work. 

Brass. — An  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc.  Early  brass 
was  copper  mixed  with  calamine  melted  in  a crucible. 
The  ancient  form  of  alloyed  metal  employed  by  the 
Romans  was  copper  and  tin,  which,  although  fre- 
quently termed  “ brass  ” is  more  correctly  defined 
as  bronze  (see  Bronze).  The  greater  the  proportion 
of  zinc  the  lighter  the  colour ; but  the  addition  of  an 
extra  quantity  of  zinc  reduced  the  tenacity  and 
ductility  of  the  metal. 

Brasses. — The  term  brasses  is  applied  (in  anti- 
quarian and  curio  metallurgy)  to  the  monumental 
brasses  which  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century  replaced  the  older  effigies,  such 
as  those  of  the  Crusaders,  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
Temple  Church,  in  London.  The  brasses,  of  which 
many  rubbings  have  been  taken,  include  the  large 
brasses,  covering  nearly  the  whole  of  their  tomb 
flag,  and  the  small  brasses  on  which  were  engraved 
emblems,  escutcheons,  and  inscriptions,  inset  into 
large  slabs  of  marble  or  stone,  ornamenting  rather 
than  constituting  the  covering  of  tombs. 

Brazier. — Primarily  a pan  for  holding  burning  coals. 
The  brazier  was  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 


GLOSSARY 


27 


turies  a domestic  appliance  for  keeping  hot  dishes 
for  the  table,  some  very  interesting  examples  of  an 
ornamental  character,  doubtless  used  for  that  purpose, 
being  referred  to  in  Chapter  VIII.  The  brazier,  so 
called  to-day,  is  a tripod  open  fire  chiefly  used  out  of 
doors  in  some  open  space. 

Bronze. — The  bronze  of  the  ancients  consisted 
chiefly  of  pure  copper  and  an  alloy  of  tin.  In  those 
very  early  days  the  compounding  and  mixing  of  the 
metals  must  have  been  done  largely  by  experience 
and  “rule  of  thumb.”  It  was  before  the  days  of 
metallurgical  research  and  before  the  chemistry 
of  metals  was  understood.  As  yet  there  was  no 
formula.  Curiously  enough  the  proper  nomen- 
clature of  metals  has  never  been  formulated,  and 
“ bronze  ” is  the  term  still  applied  in  a very 
haphazard  way  to  various  alloys. 

Quite  recently  a very  able  lecture  was  delivered 
by  Dr.  Rosenhain,  of  the  National  Physical  Labora- 
tory, on  the  “ Nomenclature  of  Alloys  ” at  a meeting 
of  the  Birmingham  Section  of  the  Institute  of  Metals. 
Every  one,  he  told  us,  described  metals  “ at  his  own 
sweet  will,”  and  for  the  most  part  by  misleading 
terms.  He  suggested  in  reference  to  copper-bronze 
alloys  that  “ copper-zinc  ” might  denote  an  alloy  with 
more  copper  than  zinc  in  it,  and  “ zinc-copper  ” when 
the  former  metal  was  present  in  a greater  degree. 
He  thought  “ tin-copper  ” would  serve  as  a fairly 
wide  definition  of  modern  bronze.  In  such  bronzes 
aluminium  is  now  generally  added.  Other  scientists 
have  suggested  the  definition  of  bronze  by  chemical 
numerals,  thereby  indicating  their  contents  with 


28 


GLOSSARY 


more  exactitude.  At  present,  however,  the  term 
bronze  is  very  elastic. 

Buckler. — The  old  English  name  bocler  denoted  a 
shield  with  a boss.  It  was  worn  on  the  left  arm  ; 
used  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  parry  blows  rather  than 
intended  to  act  as  a cover  for  the  body  like  the  larger 
and  more  cumbrous  shields. 

Chattie  or  Chatty. — A porous  earthenware  vessel 
used  in  India  for  cooling  water  and  other  purposes. 

Chaufferette. — A spherical  metal  vessel  in  the 
interior  of  which  was  a small  chain,  from  which 
was  suspended  a cup  in  which  could  be  placed  a 
piece  of  red-hot  metal  or  charcoal.  It  was  usually 
a hand-warmer ; some  chaufferettes,  however,  were 
larger,  almost  like  small  stoves.  The  name  is  derived 
from  a table  stove  or  small  furnace,  literally  a cylin- 
drical box  of  sheet-iron,  the  word  coming  from  the 
French  chauffer , to  heat. 

Circe-Perdu  Process.  — The  Japanese  have  been 
wonderfully  clever  in  their  manipulation  of  metals, 
especially  considering  the  very  primitive  appliances 
they  used  in  the  early  days.  Some  of  their  most 
remarkably  intricate  bronzes  were  fashioned  and 
modelled  in  wax,  delicately  tooled,  hardened  a little, 
and  then  covered  over  with  layers  of  fine  clay  until 
the  mould  became  strong  enough.  The  clay  mould 
when  dried  was  heated  until  the  wax  ran  out,  leaving 
a smooth  and  beautifully  finished  mould  in  which  the 
bronze  metal  could  be  poured,  the  clay  being  broken 
away  when  it  was  cold.  Great  skill  and  at  the  same 
time  much  patience  were  needed  to  produce  such 
charming  effects.  The  bronzes  of  old  Japan  were 


GLOSSARY 


29 


frequently  inlaid  with  fine  and  delicate  tracery  in  silver 
and  gold.  Up  to  comparatively  recent  times  beauti- 
fully modelled  ornaments  were  fashioned  by  such 
laborious  processes,  and  even  now  by  more  modern 
methods  much  labour  is  expended  on  their  production. 

Counters. — Counters  have  been  used  in  card  games 
from  quite  early  times.  They  were  frequently  of 
engraved  metal.  In  the  reign  of  James  I,  we  are 
told  by  Horace  Walpole,  one  Nicholas  Hilliard  was 
licensed  for  twelve  years  to  engrave  card  counters  on 
which  was  the  Royal  portrait.  In  later  reigns  similar 
counters  were  so  engraved.  Those  of  the  time  of 
Queen  Anne  bore  a great  resemblance  to  the  obverse 
of  the  then  current  coins.  Sets  of  counters  were 
frequently  supplied  in  metal  boxes,  the  exteriors  of 
which  were  often  decorated  by  engravings.  It  should 
be  clearly  understood  that  metal  card-counters — old 
and  modern — are  quite  distinct  from  commercial 
counters  or  jettons. 

Couvre  de  Feu. — The  French  term,  literally,  cover  of 
the  fire,  became  the  name  of  the  metal  shield  or  cover 
with  which  the  fire  was  shut  down  in  the  days  of  the 
Norman  kings.  From  the  same  root  term  the 
English  curfew  is  derived.  It  was  the  curfew  bell 
that  sounded  the  signal  for  the  couvre  de  feu  to 
be  brought  out  and  lights  and  fires  to  be  ex- 
tinguished. These  metal  plates,  so  frequently 
engraved  all  over,  are  among  the  rarities  of  domestic 
curios  (see  p.  113). 

Damascene. — The  process  of  inlaying  steel  or  other 
metal  work  with  silver  or  gold  beaten  into  the  incised 
metal.  To  damascene  (also  spelled  damasken)  was 


30 


GLOSSARY 


a process  first  emanating  from  Damascus — hence  its 
name. 

Dialling. — A dial  plate  is  made  by  fixing  to  a flat 
surface  a stile  or  gnomon,  which  forms  with  the 
horizon  an  angle  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place 
in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  When  the  gnomon  is  in 
position  a line  is  drawn  upon  the  surface  of  the  plate 
so  that  the  shadow  of  the  stile  falls  exactly  upon  it 
at  noonday,  the  plane  through  the  stile  and  the  sun 
coinciding  with  the  meridian.  It  cannot  be  too 
clearly  understood  by  users  of  old  sundials  that  dial 
plates  used  in  any  other  latitude  than  that  for  which 
they  were  constructed  must  necessarily  be  inaccurate. 

Ember  Tongs. — These  little  tongs  were  formerly 
used  to  take  up  the  hot  embers  from  among  the 
ashes  of  a dying  fire.  They  were  constantly  in  use 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  many 
being  decorative,  the  handles  often  being  fashioned 
to  serve  the  purpose  of  a pipe  stopper. 

Enamels. — The  enamels  applied  to  copper  or  brass 
are  glass  coloured  with  oxides  of  metals,  producing 
blue,  green,  violet,  red,  and  other  shades.  These 
when  fused  adhere  to  the  metal  surface  and  are 
very  lasting.  Various  processes  have  been  adopted, 
especially  in  the  fine  arts.  The  principal  older 
processes  are  champleve,  cloisonne,  and  Limoges. 
In  the  first  named  the  spaces  to  be  filled  in  with 
enamels  are  cut  into  the  metal  foundation ; then, 
when  the  enamels  have  been  fired,  they  are  rubbed 
down  and  polished.  The  cloisonne  process,  chiefly 
practised  in  the  East,  consists  of  small  cells  or 
cloisons  formed  of  wire  filled  with  the  requisite 


GLOSSARY 


31 


colours.  Limoges  enamels,  the  finest  period  of 
which  is  placed  in  the  sixteenth  century,  were 
formed  by  a ground  of  enamel  painted  over,  chiefly 
with  classical  subjects. 

Opaque  enamels  on,  usually,  a convex  copper  disc 
or  plate,  were  the  work  of  later  craftsmen.  At 
Battersea  and  Bilston  in  England,  towards  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  many  small  boxes  and 
trinkets  (see  p.  356)  were  produced.  The  enamels 
of  recent  date  applied  to  utilitarian  objects  and 
cooking  vessels  are  seldom  fixed  upon  a ground-work 
of  copper — iron  or  steel  being  the  usual  base.  In 
jewelry  and  small  trinkets  enamelling  on  copper  is  still 
practised,  many  such  objects  being  of  Oriental  origin. 

Fibula. — A small  brooch  or  buckle.  Many  of  the 
beautifully  fashioned  fibulae  have  been  found  among 
the  remains  of  Roman  London,  a large  number 
being  on  view  in  the  Guildhall  Museum. 

Gipciere. — A kind  of  pouch  formerly  worn  at  the 
girdle,  an  early  type  of  purse.  The  name  is  some- 
times spelled  gipser . 

Hookah. — The  name  given  to  the  bottle  through 
which  tobacco  smoke  is  passed.  In  smoking  with 
a hookah  the  smoke  is  cooled  by  being  made  to 
pass  through  water. 

Latten. — The  name  is  primarily  derived  from  the 
nature  of  the  material — thin  sheets.  The  brass  or 
latten  brass  was  formerly  used  chiefly  for  making 
church  utensils.  Black  latten  consists  of  milled 
sheets  of  brass,  composed  of  copper  and  zinc  ; roll 
latten,  of  metal  polished  on  both  sides  ; and  white 
latten,  of  brass  and  tin. 


32 


GLOSSARY 


Meander. — A term  applied  to  the  decorations  on 
Japanese  and  other  bronzes.  To  wind,  to  twist, 
meandering  like  the  winding  river  Maeander,  in 
Phrygia,  from  which  the  proverbial  term  is  derived. 

Mirrors  of  Bronze. — The  bronze  mirrors  of  the 
Romans  were  given  their  reflective  power  by  using 
an  alloy  of  antimony  and  lead,  a combined  metal 
which  took  a highly  reflective  polish ; the  backs, 
handles,  and  frames  were  of  bronze. 

Mortars. — Mortars  such  as  those  referred  to  on 
p.  226  with  accompanying  pestles,  were  commonly 
in  domestic  use  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  eighteenth 
centuries.  In  later  years  they  were  employed  chiefly 
in  the  preparation  of  drugs,  but  more  recently  they 
have  been  superseded  by  the  modern  way  of  pre- 
paring spices  and  other  compounds  by  machinery. 
The  form  of  the  vessel  may  be  described  as  an 
inverted  bell,  the  substances  therein  being  pounded 
or  rubbed  with  the  pestle. 

Patina. — A term  expressive  of  the  colour  or  en- 
crustation which  is  imparted  to  works  of  art  by  age. 
It  is  used  chiefly  in  reference  to  the  beautiful  green 
formation  which  covers  ancient  bronzes,  shading 
from  light  green  to  deep  brown.  This  crustation 
consists  of  basic  copper  carbonate,  the  result  of 
exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  chiefly  found  on  bronzes, 
the  alloy  of  which  is  mostly  of  tin  and  very  little 
zinc.  The  patina  or  patine  is  also  the  name  given 
by  the  Romans  to  a shallow  basin  used  for 
domestic  purposes. 

Pilgrims’  Signs.-— The  symbols  or  signs  worn  by 
pilgrims  when  visiting  one  or  other  of  the  famous 


GLOSSARY 


33 


shrines  in  this  country  in  mediaeval  days  were 
distinct  from  the  crests  or  badges  of  wealthy  patrons 
which  were  at  one  time  worn  pretty  generally  as 
indicating  on  whose  service  the  journey  they  were 
making  was  being  performed.  Pilgrims’  signs  were 
worn  on  the  outward  journey  chiefly  as  protective 
amulets  ; on  the  return  journey  mostly  as  proof  of 
the  pilgrimage;  such  signs  being  purchased  at  or 
near  the  shrines  to  which  homage  had  been  paid. 
The  chief  shrines  in  this  country  were  those  of 
St.  Thomas  a Becket  at  Canterbury,  and  Walsingham 
Priory  in  Norfolk,  where  Our  Lady  of  Walsingham 
was  held  in  high  repute. 

Weather-Vane. — The  vane  denotes  any  flat  surface 
attached  to  an  axis  and  moved  by  the  wind,  usually 
applied  to  some  elevated  object  for  the  purpose  of 
telling  which  way  the  wind  blows.  A strip  of  metal 
cut  to  some  fanciful  form  and  placed  upon  a 
perpendicular  axis  around  which  it  moves  easily. 


I 

THE 
METAL 
AND  ITS 
ALLOYS 


3 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  METAL  AND  ITS  ALLOYS 

Ancient  bronze — The  bronzes  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  Eastern  nations 
— Copper  for  enamels — The  brass  of  commerce — Bell  metal — 
The  sources  of  copper — The  making  of  brass — Copper  as  an 
alloy — The  characteristics  of  metals. 

The  coppersmith  has  taken  a prominent  place 
among  the  craftsmen  of  all  nations,  and  at  all 
periods,  and  in  not  a few  instances  he  has  been 
acknowledged  as  an  artist  of  no  mean  order.  The 
material  upon  which  he  has  worked  has  been  copper 
and  its  alloys  and  compounds.  From  this  metal 
have  been  produced  many  valuable  antiques,  and 
among  the.work  of  the  coppersmith  of  more  recent 
days  there  are  objects  of  intense  interest  and  of 
great  beauty.  In  this  work  many  collectable  objects 
have  been  classified,  and  in  the  different  groups  of 
metal-work  referred  to  attention  is  drawn  to  these 
beautiful  and  sometimes  quaint  reminders  of  past 
generations,  and  also  to  some  of  the  most  notable 
non-collectable  metal-work  which  may  be  seen  and 
admired  in  museums  and  art  galleries,  and  to  a few 
of  the  copper  monuments,  memorials,  and  historic 
relics  which  are  gazed  at  by  the  curious,  oftentimes 


38  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


without  thought  of  the  materials  of  which  they  are 
composed. 

Ancient  Bronze. 

The  raw  material,  copper,  smelted  and  beaten  or 
poured  from  a crucible  into  moulds,  was  in  more 
ancient  times  used  in  its  unalloyed  purity — and  it 
is  still  used  in  that  state.  It  was,  however,  soon 
discovered  that  copper  might  be  improved  for  many 
purposes  by  mixing  with  it  other  metals  possessing 
different  properties.  The  prehistoric  peoples  who 
lived  in  Britain,  and  in  other  countries  within  reach, 
soon  added  tin,  which  was  found  in  Cornwall  quite 
near  to  the  surface,  and  was  from  early  times  sold 
to  Phoenician  traders,  thereby  producing  bronze. 
It  is  of  this  metal  that  most  of  the  much  valued 
curios  of  the  so-called  Bronze  Age  are  made. 
Those  who  fashioned  them  were  clever  manipulators 
of  the  alloyed  metal,  and  by  processes  now  little 
understood  were  able  to  temper  tools  and  weapons 
and  to  give  them  keen-cutting  edges.  Our  museums 
are  full  of  spear-heads,  celts,  axes,  and  palstaves 
of  bronze,  which  were  cast  in  moulds  of  stone  cut 
to  the  required  shapes  by  those  primitive  workers  in 
metal,  who  used  simple  crucibles  in  which  it  was 
melted. 

The  prehistoric  bronzes,  some  examples  of  which 
are  referred  to  in  another  chapter,  are  the  earliest 
collectable  curios  formed  of  metal.  They  include 
implements  of  war  and  of  the  chase  and  some 
domestic  utensils  and  cooking  vessels.  To  these 
useful  objects  must  be  added  ornaments  and  trinkets 


FIG.  2 (i). — BRONZE  BUCKLER  FROM  THE  THAMES  VALLEY. 
FIG.  3 (2). — ANOTHER  BUCKLER  FROM  ABERYSTWYTH. 
{In  the  British  Museum .) 

39 


THE  METAL  AND  ITS  ALLOYS  41 


of  bronze,  so  many  of  which  have  been  found  in  the 
barrows  and  burying-places  of  prehistoric  races. 

The  knowledge  of  bronze  appears  to  have  been 
widespread.  It  was  understood  by  those  who  dwelt 
in  this  country,  by  the  inhabitants  of  European 
countries,  by  Eastern  nations,  and  by  the  Egyptians, 
who  left  such  wonderful  monuments  behind  them, 
giving  evidence  that  they  knew  how  to  impart  a 
knife-like  edge  to  their  tools  of  bronze. 

Bronzes  of  Greece  and  Rome  and  Eastern  Nations. 

The  ancient  bronze  of  prehistoric  days  must  not 
be  confused  with  the  metals  or  compounds  of  copper 
and  its  alloys  which  enabled  the  Greeks  to  produce 
such  wonderful  statues.  They  learned  to  impart 
hardness  to  copper,  and  wrought  much  delicate 
handiwork,  much  of  which  has  perished ; but 
enough  has  been  spared  to  confirm  classic  history 
and  to  enable  us  to  realize  something  of  their  con- 
ceptions of  the  old  gods  and  personified  hopes  and 
aspirations.  In  like  manner  the  wonderful  bronzes 
of  China  and  Old  Japan  were  wrought ; the  metal- 
worker’s art  in  those  countries  goes  back  many 
centuries.  Some  of  the  more  delicately  chiselled 
figures  and  groups  were  first  modelled  in  wax  upon 
an  iron  core,  the  mould  being  then  formed  of  soft 
clay.  When  the  clay  was  baked  the  wax  melted, 
and  running  away  through  prepared  outlets,  left  a 
smooth  cavity  into  which  the  bronze  was  afterwards 
poured.  When  the  metal  was  cold  the  clay  would 
easily  be  broken  away,  and  the  object,  at  the 
moulding  of  which  we  often  marvel,  made  perfect. 


42  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


In  course  of  time  such  bronzes  have  been  coated 
over  with  a beautiful  patina  of  green,  that  natural 
finish  which  age  can  alone  impart.  It  is  in  that 
state  so  many  of  the  bronzes  of  Grecian  sculptors  are 
found,  and  it  is  covered  with  patina  of  many  delight- 
ful shades  that  we  buy  the  metallic  curios  from  China 
and  Japan. 

Copper  for  Enamels. 

In  the  days  when  so  many  beautiful  ecclesiastical 
ornaments  were  fashioned,  copper  was  the  foundation 
used  by  mediaeval  artists  as  the  base  of  their  exqui- 
site enamels.  These  beautiful  objects  are  especially 
referred  to  in  Chapter  XVIII,  where  reference  is 
also  made  to  the  enamels  of  Eastern  countries,  in  the 
making  of  which  brass  was  frequently  used  as  the 
foundation.  Copper  has  been  found  suitable  as 
the  groundwork  upon  which  super-finishes  have 
given  that  superiority  and  attractiveness  associated 
with  many  of  the  fine  arts.  It  was  suitable  for 
gilding  over  and  for  decorating  with  precious  stones. 
Copper  was  also  frequently  used  by  painters,  its 
smooth  surface  being  regarded  as  an  excellent  mate- 
rial on  which  to  work.  As  an  example,  some  of  the 
religious  pictures,  especially  miniatures,  were  painted 
on  copper,  instead  of  on  wood  panels. 

The  Brass  of  Commerce. 

Many  speak  of  brass  as  a metal  apart  from  copper, 
yet  the  brass  of  commerce,  worked  up  in  many  forms, 
is  only  a composite  metal  of  which  copper  is  the 
basis.  The  popularity  of  pure  copper  as  the  mate- 


THE  METAL  AND  ITS  ALLOYS  43 


rial  from  which  household  utensils  and  many  con- 
structional objects  of  use  and  ornament  were  made 
in  the  past  continued  unabated  until  metallurgical 
chemists  discovered  how,  by  using  an  alloy  of  zinc, 
the  metal  we  call  brass  could  be  cast,  rolled,  and 
otherwise  manipulated.  Among  the  advantages 
claimed  for  brass  is  that  it  has  a harder  surface  and 
is  more  resisting  than  copper.  From  the  days  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  onward  it  was  much  favoured  for 
domestic  vessels,  and  even  at  the  present  time  it  is 
used  to  some  extent ; there  has,  however,  always 
been  a concurrent  use  of  copper. 

Bell  Metal  and  Other  Alloys. 

There  is  yet  another  important  alloy,  which  from 
its  chief  use  takes  the  name  of  bell-metal  ; its  com- 
panion alloy  is  gun-metal.  In  the  mixing  of  these 
metals  special  alloys  are  aimed  at  according  to  the 
object  in  view,  that  is  to  say,  the  ingredients  vary, 
but,  broadly  defined,  the  copper  and  its  alloy  tin  used 
in  bell-metal  are  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one. 
The  metal  was  in  the  past  used  for  those  much 
employed  articles  of  commercial  and  domestic  use, 
mortars,  in  addition  to  the  founding  of  bells.  Bell- 
metal  was  also  the  material  of  which  weights  and 
measures  (especially  the  standards  kept  in  many  of 
the  old  cities)  were  chiefly  made  (see  illustrations 
and  references  thereto  in  Chapters  X and  XI). 

The  Sources  from  which  Copper  is  Derived. 

Copper  seems  to  have  been  very  widely  distributed 
all  over  the  world,  a fact  that  has  contributed  to  its 


44  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


general  use.  At  one  time  a local  metal  employed  in 
a pure  state  and  in  conjunction  with  alloys,  chiefly 
where  it  was  mined,  it  is  now  brought  to  the  metal- 
founder  from  other  parts  of  the  world.  Although 
vast  quantities  of  copper  are  now  imported  into 
England,  it  was  from  British  mines  that  the  supply 
was  drawn  in  days  gone  by.  The  Britons  under- 
stood its  use,  no  doubt  finding  it  out  by  accident, 
just  as  the  natives  of  many  other  countries  have 
done.  Copper,  as  evidenced  by  the  marvellous 
Benin  bronzes,  was  known  in  Central  Africa  long 
ago.  The  mines  at  Mansfield,  in  Germany,  are  the 
oldest  in  Europe,  and  there  workers  have  been 
digging  up  copper  for  seven  centuries. 

The  collector  of  old  metal  objects  naturally  takes  the 
greater  interest  in  well  authenticated  specimens  known 
to  have  been  fashioned  in  districts  once  famous  for 
their  copper  mines.  Unfortunately,  the  Cornish  mines 
produce  little  ore  now.  When  the  Romans  worked 
them  they  obtained  copper  quite  near  to  the  surface ; 
but  such  easily  mined  ores  have  long  been  cleared. 

Copper  smelting  was  carried  on  in  Cumberland 
and  Northumberland  in  days  gone  by.  In  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  copper  was  smelted 
in  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire.  Then  we  read  of  the 
reopening  of  old  Cornish  mines  and  of  furnaces 
being  erected  in  Bristol.  The  mines  of  Anglesea  are 
less  known,  although  they  were  once  very  active. 
South  Wales  has  for  many  years  past  been  closely 
identified  with  copper  smelting,  and  rolling  mills  were 
established  in  Swansea  as  early  as  1720 ; and 
although  the  better  knowledge  of  metallic  chemistry 


THE  METAL  AND  ITS  ALLOYS  45 


enables  manufacturers  to  produce  copper  more  econo- 
mically than  in  days  gone  by,  the  old  principle  of 
crushing,  calcining,  roasting,  and  washing  the  ore, 
although  improved  by  modern  machinery,  is  still 
adhered  to. 

As  with  many  other  industries,  the  invention  of 
the  steam-engine  was  a boon  to  the  owners  of 
copper  mines  in  Cornwall,  many  being  flooded 
towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  With 
the  steam-engine  to  work  them,  pumps  were  put  in 
operation,  mines  were  cleared,  and  for  a time  at  any 
rate  ore  was  procured  and  renewed  activity  was 
visible  in  many  British  centres.  In  those  days  many 
of  the  things  we  now  regard  as  curios  were  being 
made.  As  with  many  other  raw  materials  the  value 
of  copper  steadily  advanced,  for  as  trade  and  com- 
merce grew,  immense  quantities  were  used  up  for 
sheathing  ships’  bottoms,  roofing  buildings,  for 
engravers’  plates,  and  for  the  rolls  used  in  the 
printing  of  calicoes.  Other  sources  of  supply  have 
been  found,  for  the  chain  extending  from  Land’s 
End  to  Dartmoor  no  longer  serves.  The  famous 
Parys  Mines  are  no  more,  and  it  is  from  foreign 
countries  the  supply  comes.  Some  of  our  Colonies 
have  proved  rich  in  ores,  such,  for  instance,  as  South 
Australia,  where  it  is  said  an  early  settler  examining 
the  burrow  of  a wombat  found  the  green  mineral, 
that  incident  leading  to  the  opening  of  mines 
yielding  vast  quantities  of  copper  ore. 

The  Making  of  Brass. 

The  brass  of  commerce,  rolled  in  sheets,  drawn  in 


46  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


rods  and  wire,  and  cast  in  ingots  ready  for  the 
founder,  is,  as  it  has  been  stated,  a composite  metal, 
very  well  suited  to  many  purposes.  During  the  six- 
teenth century  much  progress  was  made  in  metal- 
founding. The  Worshipful  Company  of  Founders 
was  busy.  Many  “ battery  ” works  were  set  up  in 
England,  and  there  brass  was  hammered  or  battered 
into  shape.  Thus  brass-workers  were  engaged  in 
making  useful  pots  and  pans,  now  in  their  much 
worn  state  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  collector. 
Some  worked  with  the  ladle  and  crucible,  others 
with  the  hammer  and  anvil  or  wood  block. 

The  earlier  brass  was  composed  of  copper  mixed 
with  calamine  melted  in  a crucible,  a process  which 
continued  until  the  more  modern  form  of  melting 
metallic  zinc  with  copper  was  understood.  Champion’s 
process,  by  which  this  newer  method  was  carried  out, 
was  kept  secret  for  some  time,  but  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  generally  understood 
and  the  process  of  stamping  brass  became  a common 
one  in  the  Birmingham  district. 

Copper  as  an  Alloy. 

Copper,  the  base  of  so  many  alloys,  has  itself 
been  found  a useful  alloy  of  most  workable  metals, 
not  only  in  modern  times  but  in  years  gone  by.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  hardening  agents  in  aluminium,  the 
newer  metal  which  is  to  some  extent  displacing 
copper  and  brass  cooking  pots  and  much  ornamental 
metal-work.  According  to  an  expert,  aluminium  is 
tasteless,  and  possesses  all  the  advantages  of  copper 
without  its  drawbacks.  That  being  so,  perhaps  even 


THE  METAL  AND  ITS  ALLOYS  47 


vessels  of  brass,  such  as  may  still  be  seen  in  kitchens, 
may  soon  become  obsolete  and  pass  shortly  into  the 
role  of  the  museum  curio.  Incidentally  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  aluminium  is  not  altogether  a new 
metal,  neither  is  its  use  confined  to  civilized  countries, 
where  metallurgists  have  proved  its  advantages  ; for 
the  natives  of  the  Philippines,  Borneo,  and  other 
islands  in  the  Pacific  have  long  used  it  as  an  inde- 
pendent metal,  and  also  for  the  purposes  of  orna- 
menting other  materials.  Many  of  the  copper  and 
brass  curios  brought  into  this  country,  the  products 
of  native  smiths,  working  far  from  civilized  lands,  are 
partly  made  of  aluminium,  alloyed  chiefly  with 
native  copper.  The  natives  of  Borneo  melt  it  in 
fireclay  crucibles  over  a coke  fire,  and  are  very 
clever  at  producing  some  remarkably  fine  pieces  of 
metal-work,  using  different  metals  for  the  same 
object ; thus  some  of  their  daggers  have  brass  hilts 
and  aluminium  blades.  The  metal-worker  has  fre- 
quently introduced  aluminium  in  the  decoration  of 
copper  and  brass  gongs,  some  of  the  older  examples 
from  Japan  being  extremely  decorative. 

The  Characteristics  of  the  Metals. 

Some  collectors  very  wisely  follow  up  their 
researches  after  new  treasures  by  investigating  the 
methods  of  their  production,  and  they  even  visit 
modern  works  where  similar  methods,  although  more 
advanced,  are  going  on.  Very  interesting  indeed 
is  it  to  watch  the  molten  metal  as  it  is  mixed 
and  poured  into  moulds  and  made  into  pigs.  To 
see  the  great  rolling  mills  through  which  the  bars 


48  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


are  passed,  and  to  watch  the  hammering  and 
drawing  by  the  steam-hammer  and  powerful 
machinery,  is  an  education  which  enhances  the 
interest  there  is  in  the  possession  of  finished  goods 
— old  and  new. 

It  is  said  the  brassfounder’s  requirements  to-day 
are  much  the  same  as  they  have  always  been,  although 
perhaps  there  are  more  iron  moulds  used  and  greater 
care  is  taken  in  their  preparation.  The  mould  must 
have  a good  surface  and  be  composed  of  the  right 
kind  of  iron.  The  best  metal  for  the  purpose 
appears  to  be  one  high  in  silica  and  low  in  combined 
carbon,  thus  securing  a soft  iron  which  will  not  crack 
when  the  molten  metal  strikes  it.  The  science  of 
metals  is  constantly  being  added  to,  and  the  research 
of  chemists  of  recent  years  has  done  much  towards 
improving  the  skill  of  present-day  artists,  most  of 
whom,  however,  readily  give  praise  to  the  almost 
intuitive  skill  of  the  artists  of  olden  time. 

The  fashioning  of  copper  and  brass  follows  the 
preparation  of  the  metal  ; there  are  many  reasons 
why  copper  and  its  compounds  and  alloys  have 
been  so  generally  employed,  one  of  the  principal 
being  that  the  ductility  of  copper  has  made  it 
welcome  wherever  the  hammer  has  been  brought  into 
play.  The  possibility  of  hammering  out  brass  and 
copper,  and  especially  the  latter,  is  seen  in  the 
extreme  fineness  to  which  copper  wire  can  be  drawn. 
Hood  uses  the  similitude  when  speaking  of  how 
travel  improves  the  mind,  and  tells  of  the  gradual 
narrowing  of  copper  and  brass  as  they  become  finer 
and  finer,  likening  those  who  have  not  travelled  to 


THE  METAL  AND  ITS  ALLOYS  49 


the  narrowed  metal.  Collectors  of  curios  show 
characteristic  traits,  twofold  in  application.  There 
are  some  who  get  more  broad-minded  the  farther  they 
travel,  the  more  museums  they  inspect,  and  the  wider 
their  knowledge  of  the  antiquities  they  admire. 
Others,  specialists  for  the  most  part,  get  into  very 
narrow  grooves,  confining  their  hobbies  to  some  one 
class  of  goods,  not  always  the  most  interesting  in 
public  estimation  ; then  they  wonder  how  it  is  that 
their  hobbies  are  not  appreciated  by  their  friends ! 
Surely  the  greatest  delight  is  in  a representative  col- 
lection, such  as  the  hobby  under  review,  which  shows 
all  the  possibilities  of  copper  and  brass  in  their  varied 
treatment.  In  the  examples  which  have  come  down 
to  us  from  the  Ancients,  in  those  schemes  of  decora- 
tion which  mark  clearly  the  work  of  the  artists  of 
some  one  country  or  period,  and  in  those  general 
collectable  objects  which  have  been  brought  together 
from  everywhere,  there  is  a liberal  education  : 

“ Some  minds  improve  by  travel ; others,  rather, 

Resemble  copper  wire,  or  brass. 

Which  gets  the  narrower  by  going  farther.” 


II 


THE 

HUNTING 

GROUND 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  HUNTING  GROUND 


In  buried  cities — Turned  up  by  the  plough — Among  Saxon  and 
Norman  remains — In  hidden  chambers — In  local  museums — 
Dealers’  shops — The  engraver’s  art. 


The  multiplicity  of  collectable  objects  needed  to 
supply  collectors  makes  the  uninitiated  wonder  where 
all  these  antiques  come  from.  Countless  numbers  of 
beautiful  objects  have  found  their  way  into  the  melt- 
ing-pot in  the  past,  and  what  once  was  old  has  in 
some  new  form  become  once  more  a useful  article, 
in  its  turn  to  be  discarded  and  perhaps  melted  up 
and  recast. 

In  Buried  Cities. 

The  curios  which  have  been  preserved  for  centuries 
beneath  the  soil  are  often  of  priceless  value,  telling  of 
the  habits  of  peoples  of  whom  history  has  told  us 
little.  Celts,  knives,  spear-heads,  and  food  receptacles 
are  discovered  on  the  sites  of  prehistoric  camping- 
grounds.  The  delicately  tooled  bronzes  from  buried 
cities  like  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  come  to  us  with 
almost  a living  force  in  this  twentieth  century.  As 

4 53 


54  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


we  gaze  at  the  wonderful  beauty  of  their  forms  and 
the  charming  patina  of  green  with  which  they  are 
covered,  we  can  almost  imagine  what  they  looked 
like  in  the  hands  of  patrons  of  art  in  the  far-off  times 
when  they  were  first  fashioned.  Our  own  country  is 
full  of  ruins  of  ancient  cities  far  below  the  present 
roadways.  When  the  Romans  built  Bath  it  was  in 
a hollow  much  deeper  than  the  level  of  the  modern 
city,  and  it  is  in  these  lower  levels  that  relics  of 
Roman  Bath  are  found. 

There  is  a ring  of  sadness  in  the  desolation  of  such 
ancient  cities  as  Verulamium,  Cirencester,  Kenchester, 
and  similarly  deserted  locations  where  modern  ex- 
cavations have  been  going  on  recently.  It  seems 
curious  how  the  very  sites  of  such  once  famous  places 
have  been  lost,  but  not  strange  when  we  remember 
that  more  recently  occupied  towns  are  but  grass 
mounds — to-day  explorers  are  cutting  into  the  turf- 
covered  mounds  of  Old  Sarum  to  ascertain  where  its 
chief  buildings  stood.  The  finds  on  these  ancient 
sites  are  varied ; many  of  them  are  metallic,  and 
although  of  trifling  intrinsic  value  are  prized  as 
being  authentic  curios. 

Turned  up  by  the  Plough. 

The  plough  has  played  an  important  part  in 
history,  and  collectors  owe  much  to  that  useful 
implement.  It  has  been  the  means  of  bringing  to 
light  many  vessels  which  have  been  buried  for  cen- 
turies, for  although  land  has  been  ploughed  many 
seasons,  a deeper  ploughshare  or  more  frequent 
ploughing  on  the  same  spot  has  brought  nearer  to 


FIG.  4. — PART  OF  THE  HOARD  OF  IMPLEMENTS  OF  THE  LATE  BRONZE  AGE,  FOUND 

IN  KING’S  CO.,  IRELAND. 

{In  the  British  Museum.) 


55 


THE  HUNTING  GROUND 


57 


the  surface  a copper  vessel  or  an  earthen  jar,  full  of 
antiquarian  interest.  The  field  and  the  forest,  and 
even  the  deserted  mines,  have  brought  to  collectors 
of  old  metal  many  interesting  relics.  Until  quite 
recently  there  was  an  old  bronze  caldron  on  view  in 
the  window  of  a dealer  in  antiques  in  Chester.  It 
was  the  prototype  of  many  similar  vessels  that  have 
been  made  in  later  days  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  the  model  on  which  the  more  modern  pots 
or  camp- kettles  of  the  gipsies  and  the  three-legged 
pots  commonly  suspended  over  the  cottage  hearth, 
until  comparatively  modern  times,  have  been  fashioned. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  principle  adopted  by 
those  early  metal-workers  is  still  observed  in  the  more 
scientific  construction  of  cooking  vessels  to-day.  The 
form  of  the  caldron  was  such  that  by  applying  heat 
under  the  centre  the  flames  spread  and  leapt  up  the 
sides,  curling  as  they  travelled,  following  the  lines 
fashioned  by  the  coppersmiths,  and  heating  the  con- 
tents of  the  vessel  equally.  Such  ancient  caldrons, 
sometimes  much  worn  and  at  others  in  fairly  good 
condition,  have  been  preserved  by  Mother  Earth  until 
discovered  in  modern  times. 

Among  Saxon  and  Norman  Eemains, 

The  Saxons  and  Normans  used  metal,  and  the 
brawny  arms  of  the  smiths,  and  later  the  founders, 
fashioned  the  cooking-pots  made  in  their  day.  Many 
metal  curios,  much  battered  by  fallen  masonry,  have 
been  found  among  the  ruins  of  Norman  castles  and  in 
some  cases  of  the  still  earlier  Saxon  dwellings.  The 
discoveries  of  curios  of  those  periods  are  by  no  means 


58  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


frequent,  and  it  would  appear  as  if  we  must  now  be 
content  with  storing  carefully  those  relics  already 
discovered.  Modern  restorations  and  excavations 
have  brought  many  valuable  antiquities  to  light,  and 
authorities  have  been  very  careful  to  preserve  them  in 
county  or  local  museums. 

In  Hidden  Chambers, 

The  splendour  of  mediaeval  days  when  feasting  in 
the  great  hall  of  the  baron  or  overlord  has  been 
revealed  by  many  noted  finds.  The  great  kitchens 
of  those  mansions  were  full  of  copper  and  brass,  and 
it  is  from  such  supplies  that  many  of  the  best 
authenticated  specimens  have  come.  Some  are 
historical ; even  bronze  caldrons  and  more  modest- 
looking  saucepans  have  been  made  to  the  order  of 
some  mediaeval  chieftain  or  baron. 

The  life  of  the  common  people  of  this  country 
varied  little  between  the  days  of  the  Norman  Con- 
quest and  those  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns  who  held 
court  in  the  houses  of  the  nobility.  The  dress,  cos- 
tume, and  rough  splendour  of  the  Elizabethan  age 
had  its  effect,  however,  on  the  homes  of  courtiers  and 
eventually  of  the  common  people.  When  the  stormy 
times  of  the  Civil  War  came  there  was  a rude  break- 
ing  up  of  the  old  order  of  things,  and  in  Cromwellian 
days  some  preparation  for  the  new  which  was  to 
come.  After  the  battlefield  came  the  destruction  of 
stronghold  and  mansion  by  order  of  the  Parliament. 
Some  escaped,  and  within  the  last  century  not  a few 
domestic  curios  have  been  found  during  the  restora- 
tion and  rebuilding  of  old  houses  dating  from  the 


THE  HUNTING  GROUND 


59 


time  of  the  Commonwealth.  Priests’  cells  and  secret 
chambers,  sliding  panels  and  concealed  cupboards, 
and  other  hidden  places  were  the  rule  rather  than  the 
exception  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War.  In  some  of 
these  long-forgotten  places  of  concealment  some 
very  interesting  domestic  objects  in  copper  and 
brass  have  been  found  during  rebuilding  and 
restoration. 

In  Local  Museums, 

It  is  a moot  point  whether  the  frequent  change  in 
the  ownership  of  curios  which  goes  on  every  day,  as 
evidenced  by  the  auction  sales,  stirs  up  the  curiosity 
of  the  collector  and  awakens  his  interest  in  his  hobby 
to  a greater  extent  than  when  such  curios  are  placed 
on  view  in  local  museums.  The  fact  remains  that, 
notwithstanding  the  constant  circulation  of  curios, 
many  find  a permanent  home  in  museums.  Not  only 
do  the  national  collections  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  at  South  Kens- 
ington grow  rapidly,  but  in  almost  every  town  of 
note  there  are  local  and  great  district  museums. 
This  latter  class  is  instanced  in  the  Welsh  National 
Museum  at  Cardiff.  There  are  two  typical  local 
museums  in  London— the  Guildhall  Museum  and  the 
London  Museum,  which  has  just  found  a new  home 
at  Stafford  House.  These  museums  stimulate  local 
collectors,  but  they  do  not  contribute  to  their  collec- 
tions. As  places  of  reference  they  are  invaluable,  for 
the  wider  spread  knowledge  of  antiques  secured  by 
the  objects  shown  prevents  amateurs  from  falling  into 
traps  and  consequently  becoming  disheartened. 


60  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Dealers’  Shops, 

The  shops  of  dealers  supplement  the  auction- 
rooms.  They  are  partly  fed  from  them  and  partly  by 
the  persistent  search  ever  going  on  for  objects  in 
which  their  owners  have  little  interest  and  are  willing 
to  part  with  for  a consideration — not  always  the  “ top 
price.”  The  greater  popularity  of  curio-hunting  has 
caused  a vigorous  search  of  attic  and  cellar  at  the 
instance  of  dealers  as  well  as  collectors.  Even  the 
palaces  of  kings  and  queens  and  the  houses  of 
the  nobility  have  been  ransacked,  and  treasures  from 
an  artistic  point  of  view,  as  well  as  from  a utilitarian, 
have  been  brought  to  light  and  the  dust  of  many 
years  wiped  away. 

Many  delightful  examples  of  the  coppersmith’s  art 
were  until  recently  condemned  by  the  travelling 
tinker  as  being  no  longer  repairable,  with  the  natural 
consequence  that,  their  value  as  antiques  being  un- 
known, they  were  eventually  sold  for  an  “ old  song.” 
Those  pioneers  of  collecting  who  had  time  on  their 
hands  and  foresaw  an  accruing  value  of  even  old  metal 
went  about  from  town  to  town  examining  the  marine 
stores  and  visiting  villages  and  farmhouses  in  search 
of  anything  old  and  curious.  To-day  there  are  few 
genuine  antiques  without  some  one  to  value  them. 
Nearly  every  collection  belongs  to  an  appreciative 
owner,  and  when  curios  change  hands  it  is  generally 
at  a premium  instead  of  at  “ a bargain  price.” 

Hitherto  reference  has  been  made  chiefly  to  metal 
curios  of  British  make,  and  to  those  objects  with 
which  Englishmen  have  become  familiar.  The 
collector,  however,  is  cosmopolitan  in  his  aims,  and 


THE  HUNTING  GROUND 


61 


cheerfully  searches  the  world  over  for  objects  of 
interest.  His  curios  come  from  the  Far  East,  from 
Central  Africa,  and  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  to 
some  extent  from  the  American  continents.  There 
have  been  many  methods  of  producing  metal-work, 
yet  native  workers  in  all  countries  have  had  but  two 
processes  upon  which  they  have  based  their  plans, 
and  it  is  from  the  smiths  who  hammered  copper  and 
brass  into  shape,  and  in  later  days  stamped  it,  and 
the  founder  who  cast  the  metal  in  moulds,  that  all 
our  curios  come. 

The  Engraver’s  Art, 

This  outline  of  the  hunting-ground  of  the  col- 
lector would  be  incomplete  without  some  mention  of 
the  products  of  the  graver’s  tool  which  has  produced 
so  many  works  of  art.  The  much  prized  mezzotints, 
stipples,  and  line  engravings  are  pictures  for  the  most 
part  printed  from  copper  plates.  The  metal  rolled 
in  sheets  and  planished  becomes  a work  of  art  in 
itself  when  covered  with  those  beautiful  pictures  so 
cleverly  wrought  upon  the  metal  by  the  light  touch 
of  the  graver. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  uses  to  which 
copper  has  been  put  is  that  of  executing  beautiful 
miniatures — tiny  pictures,  portraits,  and  emblematic 
designs  such  as  were  used  by  traders  on  their 
stationery  in  years  gone  by.  The  copper-plate 
engraver  has  left  his  mark,  too,  in  the  beautifully 
quaint  and  very  valued  early  issues  of  postage-stamps, 
some  of  which  were  printed  from  copperplates.  Just 
as  copper  plays  an  important  part  in  the  produc- 


62  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


tion  of  postage-stamps  and  pictures,  so  copper  in 
conjunction  with  its  alloys  is  the  common  metal 
of  currency.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  metallic 
curios  are  the  ancient  coins  which  have  been  dug  up 
from  where  they  have  been  buried  for  centuries,  or 
discovered  in  some  hidden  chamber.  Such  little 
objects  of  copper  or  bronze  have  an  antiquarian  value 
far  beyond  either  their  artistic  beauty  or  their  age 
warrants  being  associated  with  them.  Collectors  of 
metals  know  the  value  of  some  of  the  historic  com- 
memorative medallions  in  bronze,  and  heroes  and 
warriors  show  their  appreciation  of  one  of  the 
commoner  metals  in  the  value  they  set  upon  the 
simple  Maltese  cross  inscribed  “For  Valour,”  for 
the  Victoria  Cross  is  more  coveted  than  any  naval  or 
military  award  the  Sovereign  of  these  realms  can 
bestow.  Its  owners  regard  it  as  a precious  relic,  and 
the  reluctance  of  those  left  behind  to  part  with  it  is 
seen  in  the  large  sum  which  has  to  be  paid  for  one  of 
these  simple  bronze  crosses  when  it  comes  in  the 
market. 


Ill 


PREHISTORIC 

BRONZES 


CHAPTER  III 
PREHISTORIC  BRONZES 

The  dawn  of  progress — London  relics — The  beauty  of  ancient  art — 
The  useful  bronzes,  the  prototypes  of  later  brasses — The  forger  at 
work. 


As  it  has  already  been  intimated,  our  older  metal 
curios  come  to  us  from  the  Bronze  Age.  In  the  relics 
of  that  period,  in  which  the  British  Museum  is  so 
rich,  we  are  able  to  mark  the  great  difference  that 
must  have  existed  between  the  people  who  lived  the 
“ simple  life  ” in  the  Stone  Age,  and  those  who  under- 
stood how  to  make  and  how  to  qse  implements  of 
bronze.  Metal  must  have  revolutionized  the  habits 
of  the  people,  fostered  development,  and  marked 
progress  as  the  Age  advanced  ; for  with  metal 
appliances  there  were  greater  possibilities,  and  from 
the  fact  that  while  some  used  bronze  others  were 
content  with  flint,  it  would  appear  that  then,  perhaps, 
more  than  at  any  other  time,  the  more  advanced  were 
sharply  separated  from  those  who,  possessing  lesser 
intelligence  and  possibly  fewer  opportunities,  stayed 
behind. 


65 


66  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


The  Dawn  of  Progress. 

The  more  advanced  Britons  and  the  men  of  the 
later  Bronze  Age  in  other  countries  improved  the 
patterns  of  their  tools,  the  basis  of  which  was  found 
in  flint  implements,  which  in  the  later  Neolithic 
period  had  become  more  varied.  Even  then  they 
had  hammer,  saw,  chisel,  borer,  spear  or  javelin,  and 
arrow-point.  They  had  also  a variety  of  knives  ; 
some  of  curious  sickle-like  forms.  There  are  weapons 
of  war  and  weapons  of  defence,  and  some  obviously 
used  for  the  more  peaceful  arts  and  domestic  pur- 
poses. As  the  collector  secures  specimens  of  the 
rarer  types  of  bronze  and  metal  objects  coming  to  us 
from  those  far-off  days,  we  read  the  story  of  the 
evolution  of  the  race,  and  can  picture  in  our  minds 
the  onward  march. 

The  Romans  did  not  find  the  ancient  Britons  quite 
savages,  and  we  sigh  with  regret  when  we  think  of 
the  numberless  relics  of  priceless  value — of  bronze 
and  of  even  more  precious  metals — which  existed 
then,  but  which  have  perished  long  ago.  The  melt- 
ing-pot has  been  a terribly  fierce  enemy  to  the 
collector  of  copper  and  brass,  and  it  is  really 
wonderful  how  many  rare  objects  of  the  Bronze 
Age  remain — prehistoric  only  in  that  we  have  no 
authentic  records  of  the  happenings  of  that  period. 
We  have,  however,  abundant  evidence  of  the  impor- 
tance of  that  Age  in  the  bronzes  preserved  to  us  for 
so  long  by  Mother  Earth,  and  now  carefully  tended 
by  museum  curators  and  private  collectors.  Among 
the  fine  examples  we  possess  in  our  national  col- 
lections are  the  ornamental  bucklers  of  which  some 


67 


FIG.  5 (i).— BRONZE  CALDRON  ; AND  FIG.  6 (2). — URN  OF  THE  LATER  BRONZE  AGE. 
{In  the  British  Museum.) 


PREHISTORIC  BRONZES 


69 


have  been  found  in  Wales  and  other  places.  That  re- 
presented in  Fig.  2 (i)  came  from  the  Thames  Valley, 
and  Fig.  3 (2)  from  the  peat  bogs  near  Aberystwyth ; 
both  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

Some  exceptional  hoards  have  been  found  in 
Ireland,  notably  the  bronzes  which  were  discovered 
in  1825  in  a part  of  Whigsborough,  called  Derreens, 
in  King’s  Co.  It  is  surmised  that  although  the  land 
is  now  boggy  the  soil  was  at  one  time  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  from  indications  it  would  appear  as  if  the 
bronzefounder  had  worked  on  the  spot.  In  Fig.  4 
several  representative  implements  found  in  that 
hoard  are  pictured  ; their  descriptions  are  as  follows  : 
Fig.  4 (1  and  3),  palstaves  ; (5,  6,  and  7),  daggers  ; 
(2)  a pear-shaped  bell  ; (4  and  8)  curved  trumpets, 
all  specimens  of  the  latter  part  of  the  Bronze  Age  or 
of  the  beginning  of  the  Iron  Age.  Many  fine  bronze 
vessels,  chiefly  without  feet,  have  been  found  in 
Ireland.  The  two  examples  shown  in  Figs.  5 and  6 
represent  the  way  in  which  they  were  made,  espe- 
cially Fig.  5 (1),  in  which  the  riveting  of  the  plates  will 
be  observed.  Fig.  6 (2)  has  been  designated  an  urn. 
Both  of  these  late  bronzes  are  in  the  British  Museum, 
along  with  other  Irish  finds.  In  the  same  collection 
there  is  a trumpet  of  horn  with  rings  or  bands  of 
studs,  the  mouthpiece  being  at  the  side.  It  is  a 
curious  relic  of  an  Irish  musician,  found  some  years 
ago  at  Drimoleague,  Co.  Cork. 

London  Relics. 

London  has  been  the  site  of  an  important  camp, 
town,  or  city  ever  since  man  lived  in  the  marshes 


70  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


and  upon  the  banks  of  Old  Father  Thames,  and 
among  the  finds  in  the  neighbourhood  have  been 
relics  of  every  period  of  British  civilization  ; and  as  a 
natural  consequence  London  possesses  representative 
collections  of  the  Bronze  Age,  as  well  as  of  later 
periods.  Collectors  have  many  opportunities  of  buy- 
ing, as  well  as  of  inspecting  prehistoric  bronzes  in 
museums  and  in  less  important  private  collections. 
Some  of  these  antiquities  are  of  good  form  and 
possess  a beauty  of  their  own.  The  vivid  green, 
relieved  with  deeper  shades,  with  which  age  has 
painted  these  ancient  relics  gives  them  a peculiar 
charm,  and  it  would  be  vandalism  indeed  to  attempt 
to  “ clean  ” the  celts  and  knives  which  antiquaries 
handle  with  such  veneration  and  care. 

The  Beauty  of  Ancient  Art. 

During  the  last  few  years  more  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  beauty  of  the  workmanship  of  the 
early  objects  of  brass  and  copper  relics  of  prehistoric 
peoples,  especially  of  the  people  who  inhabited  this 
country  in  pre-Roman  days.  The  London  museums 
contain  very  representative  examples.  To  many  the 
Guildhall  Museum  is  of  special  interest,  in  that  every 
object  there  has  been  found  within  the  confines  of 
the  City  of  London.  There  are  implements  of  the 
chase  and  of  war  and  peace.  For  instance,  in  the 
cases  containing  weapons  which  may  have  been  used 
for  defence  against  wild  animals,  as  well  as  for 
aggressive  campaigns,  there  are  bronze  celts,  some 
socketed  with  loops,  side  by  side  with  a very  fine 
tool  and  two  small  lumps  of  copper,  which  were 


PREHISTORIC  BRONZES 


71 


discovered  near  the  celt  These  latter  represent  the 
unfinished  material  ready  for  the  crucible  and  for  the 
alloy  which  was  to  turn  them  into  a bronze  of  special 
hardness.  In  the  same  case  there  are  leaf-shaped 
swords  and  daggers  of  rapier  form.  There  are  also 
spear-heads  of  slender  shapes  with  sockets  extending 
near  to  the  point  of  the  weapon  ; and  spear  shaft- 
sockets  of  bronze,  some  of  which  were  found  in 
Fetter  Lane. 

Of  the  late  Celtic  period  there  are  examples  of 
personal  objects,  and  it  may  be  noted  that  duplicates 
of  similar  antiquities  to  those  deposited  in  the 
Museum  are  on  sale  in  a great  number  of  shops  in 
London,  and  now  and  then  quite  important  parcels 
of  these  interesting  metallic  mementoes  of  peoples 
unknown  come  under  the  hammer.  Such  trinkets 
include  bronze  fibulae,  some  enamelled,  others  of  plain 
metal.  A very  beautiful  specimen  terminating  with 
a roughly  formed  snake’s  head  was  found  on  the 
Thames  bank  near  Hammersmith,  on  the  site  of 
reputed  pile  dwellings,  some  little  time  ago.  In  the 
same  locality  a bronze  bowl  and  a mount  were  found 
soon  afterwards.  From  the  river  near  Battersea 
came  a bronze  shield,  specially  interesting  in  that 
it  was  decorated  with  enamelled  ornaments.  Horse- 
bits  with  enamelled  rosettes  have  also  been  found  in 
London.  Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  relics 
of  that  early  age  was  a British  helmet  of  copper,  also 
decorated  with  enamels,  found  near  Waterloo  Bridge. 
In  the  Guildhall  Museum  there  is  a brooch  made 
with  a bow  and  pin  in  one  piece,  and  quite  a number 
of  other  styles  of  bronze  fibulae.  There  are  bronze 


72  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


hairpins,  too,  some  of  the  heads  being  decorated. 
There  are  Celtic  tweezers,  armlets  of  bronze,  and 
many  rings. 

To  the  inquisitive  who  like  to  inquire  into  the 
processes  of  making  things  and  to  their  sources,  the 
remains  of  ancient  workshops  represented  by  lumps 
of  copper,  strips  of  bronze,  and  objects  partly  formed, 
are  of  special  interest.  There  are  bows,  showing 
another  advance  in  civilization.  There  are  spoons, 
too,  of  circular  form,  hammered  into  shape.  It  has 
been  said  that  bowls  and  spoons  are  the  earliest  signs 
of  domesticity  and  civilization.  Our  ancestors,  who 
lived  on  the  seashore,  made  use  of  large  shells,  which 
gave  them  the  cue  to  the  fashioning  of  a shallow 
dish,  which  eventually  became  a bowl.  The  wings  of 
the  valves  of  the  oyster  and  the  pecten  may  have 
given  the  suggestion  of  a handle  to  a primitive  spoon. 
Ethnologists  have  said  that  the  broken  cocoanut  in 
the  South  Seas  was  the  bowl  of  the  primitive  tribes, 
and  from  it  vessels  in  clay  were  moulded. 

The  Useful  Bronzes,  the  Prototypes  of  Later  Brasses. 

The  beautiful  bronzes  of  the  later  part  of  the 
Bronze  Age  include  objects  showing  the  gradual 
development  and  progress  of  the  race.  Not  only  are 
the  weapons  those  likely  to  be  used  in  defence 
against  attacks  from  wild  animals  rather  than  for 
aggressive  purposes,  and  the  domestic  bronzes  of 
more  civilized  forms,  but  there  are  in  addition  im- 
plements of  husbandry.  In  Ireland  some  very 
pronounced  sickles  and  reaping-hooks  have  been 
found.  There  are  also  musical  instruments  and 


PREHISTORIC  BRONZES 


73 


sounding  horns,  among  them  curved  trumpets  of 
bronze. 

Many  interesting  although  isolated  finds  have  been 
made,  such  as  a curious  bronze  or  brass  bucket  with 
corrugated  flutes,  which  was  found  at  Weybridge,  in 
Surrey,  experts  placing  it  among  the  relics  of  the 
early  Iron  Age.  From  Faversham,  in  Kent,  many 
bronze  mirrors  have  been  secured,  some  of  them 
being  very  ornamental,  the  backs  being  engraved  all 
over.  In  the  North  of  England  several  interesting 
finds  have  been  made,  too.  Some  of  especial  value 
were  discovered  in  Heathery  Burn  Cave,  Co.  Dur- 
ham ; they  consisted  of  domestic  utensils  which 
were  probably  used  at  the  extreme  end  of  the 
Bronze  Age. 

Among  frequent  finds  is  the  patera  or  drinking- 
bowl,  which  must,  of  course,  be  distinguished  from 
the  patine,  which  was  a flat  dish  with  a raised  rim, 
used  for  serving  up  meat  or  fish.  Indeed,  it  would 
appear  that  some  of  the  peoples  who  dwelt  in  those 
far-off  ages  of  which  we  have  no  written  history 
were  more  advanced  in  civilization  and  in  the  arts 
and  crafts  than  we  usually  realize.  Modern  research 
has  revealed  much  that  was  hitherto  unknown,  and 
scientists,  explorers,  and  antiquaries  now  hold  the 
ancients  in  much  greater  respect  than  formerly — 
they  no  longer  regard  them  as  “ savages,”  although 
they  may  class  them  with  the  “ barbarians  ” of  more 
modern  Europe. 

Professor  Petrie,  the  famous  Egyptologist,  when 
speaking  on  his  wonderful  researches  some  little  time 
ago,  said  mankind  had  had  a long  past.  That  past 

5 


74  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


leads  to  the  present,  and  without  a knowledge  of  the 
present  and  to  some  extent  of  the  intermediate  ages 
we  cannot  fully  understand  the  past.  It  is  the  curios 
of  antiquity  which  help  us,  and  lead  up  by  slow 
degrees  to  the  present ; this  is  understood  by  the 
curio-hunter,  and  realized  more  and  more  as  he  goes 
further  into  the  past  of  nations.  The  curios  of  the 
Bronze  Age  are  not  limited  in  locality.  They  are 
found  in  continents  far  removed  from  Western 
civilization,  for  in  the  remains  of  ancient  Peruvians 
there  are  tools  of  bronze  belonging  to  their  far-off 
past.  The  Incas  were  not  only  adepts  at  working 
the  precious  metals  with  tools  of  bronze,  but  they 
were  clever  workers  of  other  raw  materials.  They 
possessed  beautiful  textiles  of  cotton  and  wool  and 
were  noted  agriculturists,  having  implements  of  tillage 
made  of  bronze. 

The  Forger  at  Work. 

A warning  note  is  often  sounded  by  those  who 
have  paid  dearly  for  their  experience.  It  is  needed, 
for  there  are  many  pitfalls  for  the  unwary,  especially 
in  his  researches  among  the  relics  of  the  Bronze  Age 
and  periods  which  have  been  much  copied  by  the 
makers  of  modern  antiques.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  several 
Birmingham  firms  in  making  bronzed  inkstands, 
bracket  lights,  candelabra,  and  figures  supporting 
lamps,  copied  the  antique  very  closely,  one  noted 
firm  announcing  on  their  trade  circulars  that  their 
designs  were  “ according  to  Greek,  Roman,  and 
Gothic  ornaments.”  Examples  of  such  comparatively 


PREHISTORIC  BRONZES 


75 


modern  work,  when  discovered  tarnished  and  neg- 
lected, may  sometimes  have  a close  resemblance  to 
real  antiques,  and  even  the  curios  of  still  greater 
antiquity  — especially  Egyptian  curiosities  — have 
been  much  forged.  The  forger — or,  as  he  would 
prefer  to  be  called,  the  maker  of  replicas — is  still 
at  work. 


IV 


GREEK 

AND 

ROMAN 

CURIOS 


CHAPTER  IV 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CURIOS 

Grecian  bronzes — Relics  of  Roman  occupation — Interesting  toilet 
requisites — Artificial  lighting — Statues  and  monuments — Romano- 
British  art — A well  staged  exhibit. 


It  is  from  the  curios  in  metal  and  the  antiquities  in 
stone  which  have  been  discovered,  chiefly  in  com- 
paratively recent  years,  that  we  are  able  to  read  with 
understanding  the  allusions  made  by  classic  writers 
to  domestic  life  as  it  was  in  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome.  The  records  of  the  art  of  Greece  become 
more  real  when  we  have  gazed  upon  the  beautiful 
and  graceful  statues  and  the  furniture  of  the  palace 
and  domain  for  which  the  artists  and  metal-workers 
of  those  days  were  so  justly  celebrated. 

Even  the  public  school  boy  takes  a greater  interest 
in  his  studies  when  he  recognizes  in  the  furnishings 
of  his  home  antiquities  from  Greece  or  those  lands  in 
which  that  once  powerful  nation  founded  colonies. 

Grecian  Bronzes. 

In  the  modern  replicas  of  antiques,  and  in  the 
fashioning  of  the  common  household  bronzes  of  the 

79 


80  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


present  day,  the  craftsman,  perhaps  unconsciously, 
gains  inspiration  from  the  older  race  of  artists  in 
metals.  Indeed,  the  nearer  the  workman  adheres  to 
the  form  of  the  statues  and  domestic  decorative 
metal-work  of  the  ancients,  the  more  likely  he  is  to 
succeed  in  imparting  refinement  to  the  modern  home. 
Ancient  Greece  was  the  nursery  of  art  and  the  train- 
ing ground  of  the  athlete  and  of  the  model  who 
served  as  the  type  of  the  goddesses  whose  perfect 
forms  and  attributes  were  regarded  as  worthy  of  the 
divinities  her  sons  and  daughters  worshipped.  Most 
of  the  metal  objects  coming  to  us  from  classic  days 
are  of  bronze,  toned  and  patinated.  Images  of  the 
gods  and  goddesses  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  were  to  be  found  in  every  house.  Wealthy 
patrons  employed  the  artist  in  metal  to  produce  idols 
and  appointments  for  the  numerous  temples  they 
built.  It  was  the  worship  of  many  pagan  deities  that 
found  work  for  many  craftsmen.  The  very  multi- 
plicity of  the  gods  served  the  purposes  of  trade, 
hence  the  supporters  of  pagan  practices  and  worship 
found  in  the  metal-workers  and  artists  who  wrought 
such  things  powerful  allies.  We  read  in  Biblical 
accounts  of  that  day  that  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity caused  no  small  stir  amongst  them,  and  incited 
Demetrius,  the  silversmith,  and  others  to  rise  up 
against  the  “ new  religion,”  which  gave  no  immediate 
promises  of  employment  of  metal-workers  to  com- 
pensate them  for  the  loss  of  trade  in  idols.  It  was 
thus  that  so  much  that  is  beautiful  when  regarded 
as  merely  artistic  bronze  figures  was  made.  Among 
the  favourite  deities  whose  emblematic  bronzes  have 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CURIOS 


81 


been  preserved  to  us  are  Diana,  Venus,  Mercury,  and 
Hercules.  They  rank  with  the  gods  of  brass  of  the 
heathen,  and  according  to  their  classic  beauty  are 
admired  with  the  idols  of  metal  from  India  and 
Africa  (see  Chapter  XIV). 

In  all  these  treasures  from  the  old  world,  little 
known  or  understood  now,  there  is  a blend  of  the 
decorative  and  artistic  and  the  more  utilitarian  objects 
of  the  household.  The  slaves  of  the  old  families 
often  lived  luxurious  lives,  although  the  goodwill 
of  their  patrons  and  owners  might  be  fickle.  They 
had  their  duties,  and  the  metal  objects  they  handled 
and  often  skilfully  manipulated  are  still  preserved  in 
our  museums.  These  were  often  fashioned  with  the 
same  grace  as  the  statues  which  adorned  porticoes 
and  halls. 

The  ornamental  objects  of  Greek  workmanship 
include  useful  braziers  or  bronze  tripods  which  gave 
heat  and  also  served  as  purifiers ; for  into  their  round 
brass  dishes  were  thrown  perfumes  to  correct  the 
smell  of  the  coals  and  charcoal,  which  were  then  held 
to  be  injurious.  Such  braziers  were  also  used  by  the 
Romans,  and  even  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  not  un- 
common, pepper  and  cloves  being  then  burned  for 
fragrance. 

Relics  of  Roman  Occupation. 

Although  many  beautiful  objects  have  been  im- 
ported into  this  country  by  collectors  and  dealers 
bought  in  Rome  itself,  and  in  Italian  and  other 
continental  cities  where  Roman  remains  have  been 
found,  it  is  the  relics  of  the  Roman  occupation  in 


82  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Britain  which  take  first  place  in  our  estimation 
among  the  valued  curios  of  that  great  nation.  These 
have  been  found  in  many  places,  often  quite  un- 
expectedly. 

Modern  London,  like  modern  Rome,  stands  in 
part  on  ruins  of  an  older  city.  Hence  it  is  that  when 
foundations  are  being  dug  and  excavations  to  some 
15  to  20  feet  are  made,  relics  of  Roman  London  and 
of  Saxon  and  early  Norman  buildings  which  were 
built  in  subsequent  ages  upon  the  older  ruins  come 
to  light.  It  is  amidst  these  ruins  and  the  debris  of 
old  architecture  that  metal  curiosities  are  often  found. 
Copper  and  brass  have  not  perished  to  the  same 
extent  as  iron  and  more  corrosive  metals.  In 
London,  Bath,  Chester,  and  cities  which  were  famous 
many  centuries  ago,  the  earliest  metal  curiosities 
are  unearthed.  But  many  of  the  most  valued  have 
been  found  where  least  expected,  for  it  must  be 
remembered  that  even  the  sites  of  many  old  cities 
have  been  lost,  and  green  fields  now  cover  the  old 
foundations. 

It  is  a little  disappointing  at  first,  when  a collection 
of  Roman  antiquities  is  under  examination,  to  find 
that  they  bear  a striking  resemblance  to  modern 
appliances — especially  is  that  so  in  the  cooking 
utensils.  Most  of  these  early  vessels  are  of  bronze  ; 
some,  however,  are  of  pure  copper,  mostly  covered 
over  with  green  patina.  The  useful  seems  to  have 
predominated  over  the  ornamental  ; possibly  it  is 
that  the  more  substantial  cooking-pots  and  pans  have 
remained,  although  lighter  and  more  ornamental 
objects  have  perished. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CURIOS 


83 


The  pots  and  saucepans  are  indeed  remarkably 
like  those  which  are  now  used  for  similar  purposes. 
This  has  been  remarked  by  many  who  have  had  to 
do  with  the  uncovering  of  long  buried  ruins.  A 
writer  describing  a Roman  kitchen  attached  to  the 
villa  of  a patrician  family  of  note  in  the  Republican 
era  before  Augustus  assumed  the  purple,  which  had 
been  uncovered  in  Rome,  said,  “ The  culinary  utensils 
found  there  are  much  like  our  own,  made  of  brass, 
some  of  them  dipped  or  plated  over  with  silver.” 
They  consisted  of  kettles  with  feet,  with  a dome- 
shaped opening  under  them,  a hollow  cylinder  which 
entered  into  the  kettle  base  so  that  the  fire  could 
penetrate  it. 

Many  of  these  utensils,  whilst  possessing  great 
strength  and  lasting  qualities,  were  not  altogether 
plain,  for  they  were  covered  with  foliated  ornament 
like  the  saucepan  illustrated  in  Fig.  7.  The  sauce- 
pans without  handles  were  something  like  a caldron 
on  feet ; many,  however,  were  fitted  with  bail  handles, 
by  which  they  could  be  hung  over  the  fire  by  the  aid 
of  a tripod.  The  metal  of  which  these  early  vessels 
were  made  varied,  for  although  some  were  of  bronze, 
some  were  made  of  a yellowish  brass,  like  one  found 
in  London  near  Ludgate.  The  Guildhall  Museum  is 
the  best  place  to  find  a thoroughly  representative 
collection  of  Roman  metal-work.  In  the  cases 
there  are  curious  saucer-like  bowls  with  and  without 
handles,  many  spoons  of  bronze,  and  a variety  of 
ladles,  some  of  which  have  long  and  narrow  bowls  ; 
and  there  are  some  culinary  strainers,  not  unlike 
the  modern  colander. 


84  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


There  are  many  ewers  and  some  bowls  or  basins 
of  bronze.  In  Fig.  8 is  shown  a ewer  of  hammered 
copper,  the  handle  having  at  the  time  it  was  made,  or 
at  some  later  period,  been  strengthened  with  brass 
wire,  which  is  in  part  flattened  and  stamped  with 
medallions  giving  the  vessel  an  exceedingly  orna- 
mental appearance.  This  curious  piece  is  to  be  seen 
in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 

Among  the  more  important  kitchen  accessories 
which  have  been  discovered  on  the  sites  of  Roman 
towns  are  bronze  scales  not  unlike  miniatures  of 
the  steelyards  once  common  in  England,  and  still 
used  by  butchers.  Then  there  are  brass  gridirons, 
dripping-pans,  and  cups  of  bronze.  There  are  also 
copper  pails  for  cooling  wine,  and  in  a few  instances 
bronze  stands  for  the  wine  amphorae.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  point  out  the  sites  which  are  likely 
to  yield  the  explorer  the  best  results,  neither  is  it 
possible  to  locate  the  town  where  metal-work  has 
been  found  to  the  greatest  extent,  for  all  old  camp- 
ing-grounds  and  towns  once  occupied  by  Roman 
troops  or  residential  cities  during  Roman  occupation 
contain  what  has  been  thrown  away  as  useless  or 
has  been  buried  accidentally. 

The  collector  is  delighted  with  the  many  little 
objects  which  can  be  bought,  trifling  matters  when 
seen  separately,  but  very  interesting  when  collectively 
displayed. 

Interesting  Toilet  Requisites. 

During  excavations  on  the  site  of  the  National 
Safe  Deposit  Company’s  premises  in  Walbrook  quite 


FIG.  7. — BRONZE  SAUCEPAN  WITH  FOLIATED  HANDLE. 
FIG.  8. — EWER  OF  HAMMERED  COPPER. 


FIG.  9. — LAMP  OF  CAST  BRONZE. 

FIG.  10.— LAMP  OF  BRASS  INLAID  WITH  COPPER. 


85 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CURIOS 


87 


a number  of  beautifully  formed  small  objects  were 
found.  Indeed,  such  curios  (by  no  means  uncom- 
monly met  with  on  sale  in  curio  shops)  are  very 
numerous,  and  include  toilet  implements,  armlets  of 
twisted  copper  wire,  finger  rings  of  bronze,  dress 
fasteners,  pins,  fibulae,  tweezers,  key  rings,  bodkins, 
and  needles. 

The  looking-glass  is  of  course  a modern  invention, 
but  Greek  and  Roman  maidens  learned  the  art  of 
finishing  their  toilet  in  the  reflective  “glass”  of  the 
shining  pool,  and  later  by  the  aid  of  mirrors  of 
highly  polished  metal  made  by  the  craftsmen  of 
Rome ; some  of  which  have  been  preserved.  The 
surface  to  which  this  reflective  polish  was  given  was 
of  copper  alloyed  with  antimony  and  lead.  Such 
mirrors  were  sometimes  hung  to  the  girdle,  a custom 
not  unknown  to  Shakespeare,  who  frequently  makes 
mention  of  it. 

Artificial  Lighting. 

Artificial  light  has  been  a necessity  to  man  ever 
since  primeval  days.  The  whole  story  of  the  dis- 
covery of  fire-making  and  the  light  it  gave  is  an 
enchanting  romance.  The  contrivances  for  procuring 
and  lighting  a fire  and  for  the  betterment  of  artificial 
light  have  been  many,  and  throughout  the  ages  they 
have  received  perhaps  greater  attention  by  the  in- 
ventor than  any  other  requirement  of  the  race.  Of 
all  the  curios  of  the  period  under  review  none  have 
been  more  prolific  than  those  associated  with  artificial 
light.  The  lamps  of  ancient  Rome,  of  beautiful  bronze 
and  brass,  contrasted  with  the  clay  or  terra-cotta 


88  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


lamps  of  cruder  forms  which  have  been  found  in 
such  quantities.  Their  chased  patterns  were  often 
modelled  on  the  earlier  Greek  vases,  so  many  of 
which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum  among 
the  rarities  of  the  metal  collector.  No  collection  of 
copper  and  brass  would  be  complete  without  examples 
of  the  arts  and  crafts  of  Rome,  so  beautifully  exem- 
plified in  the  charming  lamps  to  be  carried  in  the 
hand,  to  stand  on  pedestals,  and  for  suspension  from 
the  ceiling.  There  was  something  in  their  ornamen- 
tation which  carried  them  beyond  the  works  of  the 
utilitarian  maker.  A celebrated  historian,  referring 
to  the  lights  of  ancient  Rome,  speaks  of  their  match- 
less grace  and  simplicity,  and  says,  “ They  afford 
traces  of  decoration  showing  an  elevation  in  the 
ornamentation  of  common  articles  of  every-day 
use.”  The  Roman  lamp  of  bronze  was  carried 
everywhere  the  conquering  armies  went,  and  in 
Roman  settlements  in  France,  Italy,  and  in  Northern 
Africa,  as  well  as  in  Britain,  the  native  artificers  in 
copper  and  bronze  saw  in  them  designs  to  be  imi- 
tated ; and  after  the  Empire  of  Rome  had  fallen,  the 
models  which  emanated  from  the  Imperial  city 
served  as  the  designs  for  lamps  in  many  countries 
centuries  afterwards.  The  illustrations  shown  in 
Figs.  9 and  io  represent  bronze  lamps — the  former, 
Fig.  9,  is  cast,  and  is  an  early  example  ; Fig.  io, 
however,  is  of  a later  period,  and  it  is  made  of 
brass  inlaid  with  copper.  The  examples  found  in 
this  and  other  countries  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups,  those  distinctly  Roman  and  of  early  date 
and  those  of  the  days  when  the  Christian  religion 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CURIOS 


89 


was  recognized  by  the  Emperors  and  the  State. 
These  latter  are  known  by  the  decorations  upon 
them. 

Statues  and  Monuments. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  beautiful 
statuettes  of  Greece.  There  are  others,  to  many 
grand  in  their  conceptions,  the  work  of  Roman 
modellers,  many  representing  Apollo,  Hercules,  Mars, 
and  Mercury  having  been  found.  In  the  British 
Museum  there  are  some  wonderfully  striking  heads 
of  several  of  the  Emperors,  and  other  men  whose 
portraits  have  been  handed  on  to  us  in  monuments 
of  stone,  and  upon  coins  and  medallions,  the  die- 
sinkers  of  which  so  faithfully  portrayed  the  men  they 
pictured.  The  names  of  many  of  the  most  famous 
artists  are  known,  and  collectors  rejoice  over  fresh 
examples  of  their  handiwork.  It  is,  however,  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  Roman  worker  in  metal 
as  a whole  that  connoisseurs  recognize  and  appre- 
ciate, and  the  true  connoisseur  is  always  searching 
for  some  greater  artist’s  work  than  he  has  hitherto 
been  familiar  with.  He  is  on  the  look-out  for  the 
very  best  among  art  treasures. 

An  amusing  story  has  been  told  of  a modern 
manufacturer  who  was  very  fond  of  inserting  in  his 
advertisements  paragraphs  calling  attention  to  his 
modern  works  of  art,  which  he  said  were  “ acknow- 
ledged by  connoisseurs  to  be  the  best.”  “ Father,” 
said  his  little  boy  one  day,  “ what  do  you  mean  by  a 
connoisseur  ? ” “A  connoisseur,  my  boy,”  answered 
the  manufacturer  of  copper  goods,  “ is  an  eminent 


90  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


authority— -an  authority,  in  short,  who  admits  that  our 
goods  are  the  best.” 

We  are  apt  to  look  upon  the  beautiful  brass  grilles 
and  copper  lock-plates  of  mediaeval  days  as  the 
earliest  examples  of  these  metals  in  lock-making, 
the  earliest  locks  found  on  old  doors  and  muniment 
chests  being  chiefly  of  iron.  But  when  we  go  back 
to  still  earlier  times  and  examine  the  relics  of 
Roman  London,  we  find  key-rings  and  keys  of 
bronze,  some  very  ornamental,  too.  One  beautiful 
little  key  found  near  All  Hallows  Church  has  a bow 
terminating  in  a small  spur.  Another  bronze  key 
found  near  St.  Swithin’s,  in  Cannon  Street,  has  a 
ridged  annular  bow,  with  a short  square  stem.  Other 
keys  are  equally  decorative  ; the  locks,  too,  are  in 
many  instances  ornamental,  although  in  design  and 
workmanship  they  fall  short  of  the  pinnacle  of  fame 
reached  by  the  lockmakers  in  later  Gothic  times. 

Romano>British  Art. 

Many  readers  in  searching  for  curios  of  the 
Romano-British  period  in  this  country  will  recall 
the  fact  that  the  ancient  Britons  possessed  bronze ; 
and  doubtless  we  should  be  doing  an  injustice  to  the 
more  enlightened  dwellers  in  Britain  before  Roman 
occupation,  and  contemporary  with  it,  if  we  did  not 
admit  that  possibly  some  of  the  relics  of  that  period 
now  dubbed  Roman  belonged  to  those  more  entitled 
to  our  regard,  for  Albion  was  their  native  land. 

On  the  Thames  Embankment,  facing  the  Houses 
of  Parliament,  there  is  that  famous  bronze  group 
perpetuating  the  memory  of  the  British  Queen 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  CURIOS 


91 


Boadicea  in  her  war  chariot.  The  Romans  made 
their  famous  paved  roads  as  they  pushed  their 
outposts  and  line  of  camps  farther  north  and  west. 
The  wheels  of  many  British  war  chariots  were  made 
of,  or  hooped  with,  brass,  and  possibly  the  brass  or 
bronze  wheels,  such  as  are  represented  in  that  group 
on  the  Embankment  once  covered  by  the  flowing 
river,  may  have  rattled  over  the  roads  made  by  the 
conquerors ; such  chariots,  with  their  appointments 
of  bronze  and  ornamental  horse  trappings,  showed 
much  skill  in  their  fashioning.  A poet  gives  voice  to 
their  use  in  the  following  lines  : 

“ On  the  bright  axle  turns  the  bidden  wheel 
Of  sounding  brass,  the  polish’d  axle  steel.” 

A Well  Staged  Exhibit. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  readers  that 
there  is  a peculiar  attraction  in  a well  staged  exhibit 
— public  or  private.  A case  of  Roman  and  still 
earlier  bronzes  may  be  made  attractive  by  an 
arrangement  giving  a gradation  of  subject  and 
inclusive  of  the  plainer  types  with  the  more  delicately 
formed  ornamental  trinkets.  A very  fine  example 
of  how  to  arrange  such  a collection  is  seen  in  one 
of  the  rooms  in  Stafford  House,  the  new  home  of 
the  London  Museum.  The  entire  collection,  repre- 
sentative of  various  periods  of  the  Roman  occupation 
of  Britain,  so  carefully  mounted,  is  worthy  of  close 
inspection.  It  includes  many  rare  pieces,  one  being 
an  early  Roman  lamp,  which  was  found  in  Greenwich 
and  is  said  to  be  unique  among  London  curios. 
Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  none  so  fine,  nor  of 

6 


92  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


exactly  the  same  design,  has  been  found  in  England. 
This  we  are  able  to  reproduce  (see  Fig.  50).  The 
newly  arranged  London  Museum  is  likely  to  be  a 
rendezvous  of  Londoners  and  their  friends  from  the 
country,  for  not  only  are  there  early  antiquities 
in  copper  and  brass,  but  many  fascinating  curios 
arranged  in  historical  sequence,  showing  the  develop- 
ment in  metal-work  as  it  was  fashioned  by  London 
smiths  and  founders,  and  the  progress  made  by  other 
craftsmen  as  kings  and  queens  came  and  went  and 
the  London  as  we  know  it  to-day  was  being  evolved. 


V 


MEDIEVAL 

ANTIQUITIES 


I 


CHAPTER  V 

MEDIEVAL  ANTIQUITIES 


Domestic  brasswork — Metal  signs  and  badges — Ornamental  trinkets — 
Arms  and  armour. 


As  the  collector  of  copper  and  brass  assembles  his 
treasures  and  arranges  them  according  to  the  different 
periods  in  which  they  were  made,  it  is  always  the 
household  utensils  which  predominate.  As  time 
goes  on  their  number  increases  and  the  ornamental 
blends  with  the  useful ; but  the  increase  in  the 
variety  is  only  in  proportion  to  the  gradual  extension 
of  the  number  of  other  household  curios  of  contem- 
porary dates. 

The  period  under  review,  for  convenience  termed 
mediaeval,  extends  in  actual  fact  from  the  rougher 
days  of  the  Norman  sovereigns  to  those  when  bluff 
King  Hal  held  court  and  Elizabeth  made  so  many 
“ grand  tours  ” among  the  country  seats  of  her  people. 
At  the  beginning  of  this  period  the  furniture  of  even 
the  nobility  and  wealthy  ecclesiastics  was  very  scanty, 
and  when  the  proud  barons  moved  from  one  castle 
to  another  they  carried  with  them  all  their  household 
furnishings,  even  their  more  treasured  culinary 

95 


96  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


utensils  of  copper  and  brass.  They  stowed  them 
away  along  with  their  jewels  and  their  other  belong- 
ings in  oak  coffers,  which  in  the  earliest  days  were 
made  so  that  they  could  be  carried  on  poles  by 
retainers. 

“ In  oaken  coffers  I have  stuffed  my  crowns, 

In  cypress  chests  my  arras  counterpoints, 

Pewter  and  brass,  and  all  things  that  belong 
To  house  or  housekeeping.” 

The  Taming  of  the  Shrew. 


Domestic  Brasswork. 

In  mediaeval  days  the  metal-work  was  “home 
made,”  that  is  to  say,  it  was  the  work  of  retainers 
and  those  who  were  employed  upon  an  estate.  The 
old  smiths  not  only  worked  in  iron  but  wrought 
copper  and  brass,  and  the  founders  were  building  up 
a reputation  ; and  their  chief  men  were  laying  down 
rules  for  the  guidance  of  the  craftsmen.  The  influ- 
ence exerted  upon  the  metal-work  of  this  country 
by  the  trade  guilds  of  London  is  referred  to  in 
Chapter  VI.  In  their  prosperity  no  doubt  the 
kitchens  of  the  once  powerful  guilds  were  filled  with 
cooking  vessels  indicative  of  the  feasts  held  by  the 
freemen  of  the  different  crafts.  Some  may  say  there 
are  still  evidences  of  such  feasts ; but  most  of  the 
cooking  vessels  of  early  days  perished  in  the  Great 
Fire,  although  doubtless  there  are  relics  of  a later 
period  to  be  found  in  the  kitchens  and  cellars  of  the 
Guildhall  and  some  of  the  lesser  halls. 

Some  of  the  companies,  if  they  have  lost  their 
treasures,  still  possess  records  which  are  helpful  to  the 
antiquary,  and  we  naturally  turn  to  the  parchments 


MEDIAEVAL  ANTIQUITIES 


97 


and  books  of  the  Worshipful  Company  of  Founders, 
and  there,  appropriately  enough,  it  is  written  that  at 
one  time  they  had  jurisdiction  over  the  manufacture 
of  candlesticks,  buckles,  spurs,  stirrups,  straps,  lavers, 
pots,  ewers,  and  basins  of  brass  and  latten.  The 
mark  of  the  mystery  was  early  made  a ewer,  a 
ewer  and  two  candlesticks  being  given  to  the 
Founders  in  1590,  when  they  obtained  a grant  of 
arms ; the  motto  they  adopted  was  : “ God  is  the 
only  Founder.” 

The  foundries  of  the  craftsmen,  workers,  and 
casters  of  brass,  latten,  and  kindred  alloys  in  London 
were  chiefly  in  and  near  Lothbury,  among  their 
most  noted  products  being  candlesticks  and  spice 
mortars — two  staples  which  have  become  nearly 
obsolete,  although  none  would  say  that  the  founding 
of  metal  is  as  yet  an  obsolete  craft.  Thus  it  is 
change  and  development  are  seen  everywhere  in 
production.  The  chief  privileges  of  the  Founders 
have  gone,  although  they  still  take  some  little  part 
in  the  stamping  of  weights  and  measures ; but  that, 
too,  has  become  a Government  duty.  The  Founders 
have  some  interesting  pieces  of  plate,  but  not  much 
copper.  Their  best  example  of  their  own  craft  is  the 
ancient  poor-box  of  copper  which  was  presented  to 
the  Company  by  Mr.  Stephen  Pilchard  in  1653,  the 
year  in  which  he  was  Upper  Warden. 

The  feeding  of  man  has  always  been  the  first  duty 
of  those  who  took  charge  of  domestic  arrangements, 
and  we  can  readily  understand  that  the  caldron  or 
cooking-pot  was  the  earliest  vessel.  Its  use  may  be 
regarded  as  universal,  for  it  is  found  to  have  existed 


98  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


everywhere  (see  Chapter  VIII).  In  mediaeval 
England  the  feasting  of  the  poor  and  the  feeding 
of  scores  of  retainers  in  the  baronial  halls  and  in 
the  great  ecclesiastical  buildings,  where  hospitality 
and  charity  were  rife,  necessitated  immense  boiling- 
pots.  Some  of  those  referred  to  under  “ Domestic 
Utensils”  (Chapter  VIII)  seem  to  some  too  large 
for  practical  purposes.  It  may,  however,  be  pointed 
out  that  there  are  many  large  cooking-pots  in  use 
even  at  the  present  time  ; and  copper  caldrons  of 
large  size  are  used  in  hospitals  and  infirmaries. 
Quite  recently  there  appeared  in  the  public  Press 
photographs  of  a well-known  Countess  making  an 
Irish  stew  at  Liberty  Hall,  Dublin,  stirring  round 
the  contents  with  a wooden  stirrer  and  lading  out 
bowlfuls  of  soup  with  a metal  scoop  ; it  was  food  for 
the  sufferers  through  the  strike  at  that  time  going 
on  in  Dublin.  It  is  thus  that  the  poor  of  all  ages 
have  been  fed.  As  kitchen  operations  were  confined 
to  lesser  areas  and  smaller  vessels  were  needed  by 
individual  families  when  patriarchal  systems  were 
broken  up,  they  were  but  replicas  in  miniature  of  the 
larger  caldrons  and  vessels  which  had  become  too 
large. 

It  is  wisely  said,  “ Fingers  were  made  before 
spoons,”  a fact  true  enough,  but  as  time  went  on  and 
the  habits  and  customs  of  men  and  women  became 
less  rough,  although  as  yet  hardly  refined,  a need 
sprang  up  for  utensils  for  personal  use.  Hitherto 
cooking  forks  and  spoons  were  used  in  the  kitchen, 
but  the  hunting-knife  mostly  served  at  table.  It  is 
true  spoons  were  in  use  in  very  early  times  and  even 


FIG.  II. — BRASS  AQUAMANILE  (SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY). 

[In  the  British  Museum .) 


99 


MEDIEVAL  ANTIQUITIES 


101 


by  the  common  people.  At  first  of  iron  or  wood, 
afterwards  made  of  brass  and  latten,  they  are  found 
wherever  there  are  remains  of  mediaeval  dwellings. 
A Scotchman  is  said  to  have  declared  that  “the 
discovery  of  hot  broth  was  an  epoch  in  the  evolution 
of  man,  and  that  as  the  ladle  is  to  the  pot  so  is  the 
spoon  to  the  bowl.” 

Such  brass  ewers  and  basins,  known  as  aquamaniles, 
mostly  of  bronze  (one  of  Continental  make  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  n)  were  used  for  the  purpose  of 
washing  the  hands,  over  which  the  water  was  poured. 
They  were  used  in  connection  with  bowls.  Another 
type  of  laving  ewer  is  that  of  the  gemellions,  made 
in  pairs,  one  portion  being  held  under  a person’s 
hands  while  water  was  poured  out  of  the  spouted 
bowl.  Gemellions  seem  to  have  been  the  somewhat 
clumsy  prototypes  of  the  more  convenient  jug  and 
bowl  of  later  days.  The  use  of  ewers  and  basin 
was  very  necessary  both  before  and  after  meals 
when  knives  and  spoons  were  little  used  and  it  was 
no  uncommon  thing  for  two  persons  to  eat  out  of 
one  dish. 

In  mediaeval  days  even  domestic  articles  were 
frequently  decorated,  for  English  and  European 
metal-workers  had  caught  the  figure  work  of  the 
Oriental  school.  Their  ornament  took  the  form  of 
hunting  and  battle  scenes.  Sometimes  patrons  were 
eulogized,  and  flattering  inscriptions  covered  the 
objects  wrought  for  them  by  their  servile  dependents. 
In  Fig.  1 8 there  is  shown  a bucket  or  bath  vessel 
now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  rather 
an  unusual  piece  of  early  metal-work  and  an  in- 


/ 


% 


102  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


teresting  mediaeval  curio.  Not  long  ago  a similar 
bucket  was  dug  up  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wey- 
bridge. 

We  are  apt  to  regard  with  disdain  what  we  term 
the  grandmotherly  legislation  which  tampers  with 
the  liberty  of  the  subject.  The  present  day,  however, 
is  not  alone  remarkable  for  regulations  by  which  the 
home  life  of  the  nation  is  controlled.  The  Norman 
law  which  ordered  “ lights  out  ” when  curfew  rang  cut 
short  the  “ overtime  ” of  the  worker  of  that  day.  So 
stringent  was  the  enforcement  of  that  law  that  not  a 
glimmer  of  light  must  be  seen  after  the  appointed 
time.  To  darken  or  extinguish  the  dying  fire  on 
the  hearth  the  couvre  de  feu  became  a feature.  Such 
covers  of  well  authenticated  antiquity  are  rare ; the 
one  illustrated  in  Fig.  12  is  a well-preserved  example 
now  in  the  Bolton  Museum. 

Metal  Signs  and  Badges. 

In  the  early  days  when  serfdom  had  not  long 
ceased  and  the  retainers  of  the  nobles  had  not 
won  their  full  freedom  or  independence,  signs  and 
symbols  of  their  allegiance  to  some  chief  or  overlord 
were  plentiful.  The  Crusaders  brought  back  with 
them  signs,  amulets,  and  various  objects  which  they 
wore  with  more  or  less  superstitious  belief.  The 
pilgrims  to  the  most  noted  shrines  in  this  country 
followed  suit,  and  all  these  various  purposes  and 
mediaeval  customs  have  furnished  the  curio-hunter 
with  many  delightful  reminders  of  the  “good  old 
days”  when  superstition  and  almost  idolatry  were 
rife.  Old  Father  Thames  has  preserved  many  of 


MEDIAEVAL  ANTIQUITIES 


103 


them  for  centuries,  and  twentieth-century  collectors 
are  richer  thereby. 

In  the  Guildhall  Museum  in  London  there  is  a 
very  complete  and  representative  collection  of 
pilgrims’  signs.  Although  many  of  them  are  made 
of  a soft  metal,  there  are  others  of  good  copper  and 
brass.  At  one  time  they  must  have  been  very 
plentiful,  for  very  prolific  have  the  finds  been  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London  Bridge  and  in  and 
around  Southwark.  These  signs  or  badges  were 
secured  and  worn  by  the  pilgrims  who  set  out  to  the 
chief  shrines,  notably  that  of  St.  Thomas  a Becket  at 
Canterbury.  Chaucer  in  his  Canterbury  Tales  has 
told  that  there  were  many  traders  in  pilgrim  signs 
in  Canterbury  city,  so  that  all  were  enabled  to 
possess  themselves  of  such  symbols,  many  of  which 
they  threw  upon  the  shrine,  and  others  retained  them 
as  talismans  against  danger  on  the  return  journey. 
The  pilgrims  wore  a variety  of  emblems — the  more 
devout,  it  is  said,  preferred  the  cross  ; others  carried 
with  them  on  their  journey  little  metal  figures 
of  St.  George,  St.  Katherine,  St.  Christopher,  or 
other  saint  with  his  or  her  symbol.  St.  Agnes 
was  represented  by  a lamb,  St.  John  by  an  eagle, 
and  St.  Dorothy  by  a basket  of  fruit.  Perhaps  the 
most  favoured  sign  purchased  in  Canterbury  was  an 
equestrian  figure  of  St.  Thomas  a Becket.  Some  of 
the  emblems  were  worn  as  protectors  against  evil, 
and  such  signs  were  almost  invariably  on  horse 
trappings ; indeed,  such  amulets  have  been  perpetu- 
ated almost  up  to  the  present  day.  There  are 
several  circular  discs  in  the  museum  referred  to,  said 


104  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


to  date  from  the  twelfth  century,  upon  these  are 
embossed  two  horned  animals  ; another  badge  of  a 
little  later  date,  in  copper,  has  upon  it  a shield  of 
arms  surrounded  by  three  mythical  dragons  ; it  was 
found  in  Ludgate  Hill.  Yet  another  on  which  is  a 
shield  charged  with  seven  stars,  said  to  be  of 
fourteenth-century  workmanship,  was  found  some 
time  ago  on  the  site  of  the  old  General  Post  Office 
in  St.  Martin’s-le-Grand. 

The  retainers  of  noblemen  wore  private  badges  by 
which  they  were  known  ; these  were  mostly  of  brass 
or  bronze,  and  sometimes  they  were  gilded.  They 
were  frequently  worn  when  on  a journey  as  a pass- 
port. Such  badges  in  the  form  of  circles  and 
lozenges  were  usually  furnished  with  a loop  for 
suspension,  and  became  well  known.  They  served 
a similar  purpose  to  the  distinctive  livery  of  later 
days. 

Ornamental  Trinkets. 

The  household  ornaments,  trinkets,  and  little 
articles  of  personal  adornment  which  have  been 
preserved  tell  not  only  of  female  vanity  but  of 
masculine  love  of  ornament.  It  would  appear  that 
the  use  of  bronze  lingered  on  for  centuries  after  it 
had  nominally  been  displaced  by  brass ; especially 
was  that  the  case  in  decorative  objects  and  metal 
ornament.  The  metals  known  as  bronze,  copper, 
and  brass  are,  however,  much  intermixed  in  their 
use. 

The  objects  which  can  be  collected  include 
brooches,  rings,  pins,  needles,  bodkins,  and  thimbles 


MEDIAEVAL  ANTIQUITIES 


105 


of  brass.  Buckles  are  very  numerous,  and  varied  in 
form  ; some  are  heart-shaped,  others  have  ends  cut 
out  to  form  a trefoil  and  are  decorated  with  a 
pierced  fleur-de-lis.  The  story  of  the  pin,  the 
smallest  and  yet  the  most  used  metal  object  pre- 
served, is  very  interesting.  At  one  time  it  was 
made  by  hand  from  brass  wire,  the  head  being  twisted 
round  and  round  until  it  had  the  appearance  of  a 
solid  knob.  The  Pinners  were  in  years  gone  by  an 
important  guild,  and  in  1376  returned  two  men  to 
the  Common  Council  of  London.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  com- 
pelling the  Pinners  to  solder  fast  to  the  shank  the 
head  of  the  pin,  and  directing  that  the  pin  itself 
should  be  “smooth,  rounded,  filed,  and  sharpened.” 
Very  laborious  indeed  must  have  been  the  making 
of  pins  in  those  days.  There  were  pins,  however,  of 
an  earlier  date,  for  it  is  recorded  that  on  one  occasion 
when  the  men  of  Athens  had  gone  out  to  battle  only 
one  returned.  He  was  met  by  an  infuriated  mob  of 
women,  who  were  so  enraged  at  the  loss  of  their 
husbands  that  Herodotus  tells  us  they  pulled  the 
pins  out  from  their  garments  and  stabbed  him  to 
death.  There  were  bronze  pins  in  Rome,  too,  and 
we  are  told  that  even  the  safety-pin  of  to-day  is  by 
no  means  new,  for  among  the  collectable  objects  in 
brass  are  prehistoric  safety-pins. 

Half  a century  ago,  when  little  girls  went  to  school 
they  carried  with  them  the  inevitable  pin  poppet, 
some  of  which  receptacles  for  pins  and  other  similar 
sundries  were  of  wood,  but  many  were  brass ; some 
met  with  among  old  metal  curios  are  quite  hand- 


106  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


somely  decorated.  Another  indispensable  object  is 
the  button,  so  many  of  which  are  of  metal,  many 
decorative,  some  inscribed,  and  others  ornamented 
with  portraits.  There  are  little  brass  sleeve-links, 
worn  in  Tudor  days,  to  be  met  with,  and  some 
curious  brass  studs  which  were  worn  by  men  in 
the  shirt  fronts  of  the  early  Georgian  period.  There 
are  clasps  of  purses  and  books  and  casket  mounts  of 
brass,  some  of  which  date  back  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  older  mounts  of  purses,  so-called,  would 
be  more  correctly  described  as  the  mounts  of 
gipcieres  ; the  gipciere  was  a kind  of  pouch  formerly 
worn  at  the  girdle  ; the  name  is  also  spelled  gipser  : 

“ A gipser  all  of  silk 
Hung  at  his  girdle  white  as  morne  silk.” 

Chaucer. 

Sometimes  the  mounts  were  inscribed  with 
mottoes ; one  found  in  Brooks’  Wharf,  London, 
believed  to  be  of  fourteenth-century  workmanship, 
is  inscribed  “ CREATOREM  CELI  ET  TERRE  ET  IN 
IESVM.”  Other  objects  in  brass  are  girdle  ends, 
some  of  which  are  shaped  like  acorns  and  others 
are  of  ivy-leaf  design.  Among  ornamental  bronzes 
which  can  be  worn,  and  in  larger  sizes  hung  upon 
the  wall,  there  are  plaques,  many  of  the  earliest 
being  copied  from  antique  gems.  Plaquettes  in 
bronze  were  common  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Arms  and  Armour. 

A volume  might  well  be  taken  up  with  describing 
mediaeval  arms  and  armour.  It  is  true  iron  and 


MEDIAEVAL  ANTIQUITIES 


107 


steel  are  the  chief  metals  in  the  making  of  weapons, 
but  brass  and  bronze  are  closely  allied  with  some  of 
the  armaments  of  war.  Many  of  the  small  mediaeval 
cannon  were  of  brass,  and  not  a few  of  the  guns,  or 
“ hand  cannon,”  were  of  that  metal. 

In  the  days  of  Elizabeth  the  musketeer  carried,  in 
addition  to  an  unwieldy  weapon,  his  flask  of  powder, 
touch-box,  and  burning  match.  The  match-box 
was  a tube  of  copper  pierced  with  small  holes,  and  in 
it  the  lighted  match  could  be  conveyed  safely.  The 
powder-horn  was  at  first  of  real  horn,  but  in  time  it 
became  a copper  flask.  Many  of  the  old  flasks  were 
exceedingly  ornate,  and  were  often  ornamented  with 
hunting  scenes  worked  up  in  repoussd  on  the  copper 
sides.  The  spur-makers  were  important  craftsmen 
in  early  days,  and  under  the  name  of  the  Guild  of 
Loriners  ranked  with  the  City  companies.  It  is  true 
that  the  spur  rowels  of  six,  eight,  or  even  twelve 
points  were  generally  of  iron,  but  the  collector  of 
metal  finds  many  interesting  specimens  made 
entirely  of  brass.  One  pair  of  spurs  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII  consist  of  fourteen  brass  points,  the 
neck  of  the  rowel  being  shaped  like  a peacock  and 
embossed  with  brass  rosettes.  Our  finest  collection 
of  armour  and  of  ceremonial  metal- work  — that 
splendid  collection  which  dates  from  quite  early 
times,  finding  its  greatest  strength  and  massive 
grandeur  in  late  mediaeval  days  and  its  artistic 
ornament  in  the  richly  damascened  armour  of  lesser 
weight  of  the  Stuarts — is  rightly  housed  in  that 
greatest  of  English  strongholds,  the  Tower  of  London. 
It  is  there  that  the  antiquary  and  the  archaeologist 


108  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


love  to  wander,  and  in  the  vast  recesses  of  those 
dungeons  and  prison-like  towers  read  history. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  metal  everywhere.  Guns 
and  cannon  and  mortars  of  historic  fame  lie  about 
in  the  open.  The  Bloody  Tower,  nearly  opposite 
the  Traitors’  Gate,  the  Middle  Tower,  the  By  ward 
Tower,  and  many  others  of  equal  interest  may  be 
seen.  To  some  the  Regalia  with  its  crowns,  swords, 
and  sceptres  of  state,  ampulla,  spoon,  salt-cellars, 
maces,  and  orders  of  merit,  are  the  greatest  attraction. 
The  curio  collector,  however,  finds  his  way  to  the 
museum  and  admires  and  perhaps  envies  the 
quaint  and  curious  guns,  powder-horns,  and  trophies 
of  war.  He  is  in  the  midst  of  the  England  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  with  its  jousts  and  tournaments,  shut 
out  by  the  thick  walls  of  the  White  Tower  from  the 
hurry  and  bustle  of  the  traffic  and  commerce  of  the 
twentieth  century. 

The  magnificent  armour  in  Hertford  House — the 
Wallace  collection — is  a delight  to  those  who  love 
to  see  in  arms  and  armour  the  perfection  of  beauty 
of  ornament  and  decoration.  There  are  splendid 
suits  which  look  as  bright  as  the  day  when  they  were 
new.  The  half-suit  of  armour  of  Italian  workman- 
ship made  for  Alfonso  II,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  inlaid 
and  damascened  with  gold  and  silver,  is  said  to  be 
the  finest  in  Europe.  The  staging  of  this  splendid 
collection  was  carried  out  by  Mr.  Guy  Laking,  the 
Keeper  of  the  King’s  Armour  and  Custodian  of  the 
London  Museum. 

A fitting  conclusion  to  this  chapter  is,  surely,  a 
tribute  to  the  armourers  and  founders  and  smiths  of 


MEDIAEVAL  ANTIQUITIES 


109 


the  Middle  Ages,  who  worked  so  conscientiously  and 
made  their  work  lasting.  It  has  retained  its  beauty 
and  much  of  its  ancient  finish,  notwithstanding  atmo- 
spheric influences  ; indeed,  some  of  it  gained  added 
beauty  by  oxidation. 


7 


VI 


LATER 

METAL- 

WORK 


FIG.  12. — BRASS  COUVRE  DE  FEU , A RARE  EARLY  PIECE. 
[In  the  Chadwick  Museum,  Bolton .) 


113 


CHAPTER  VI 

LATER  METAL-WORK 


The  influence  of  the  Guilds — Architectural  metal-work — The  door 
knocker — Interior  metal- work. 


IN  all  branches  of  art  there  seems  to  be  a break 
between  the  earlier  mediaeval  and  the  later  art  which 
was  the  outcome  to  some  extent  of  the  great  Renais- 
sance or  revival  which  swept  over  the  Continent  of 
Europe  and  brought  with  it  such  a change  in  every- 
thing appertaining  to  the  beautiful.  Whilst  mediaeval 
metal-workers  produced  grand  examples  full  of 
design  and  ornament,  influenced  by  the  touch  with 
Eastern  nations  which  the  Crusaders  gave  them,  the 
later  smiths  and  founders  gradually  evolved  styles  of 
their  own,  more  English  to  our  ideas.  The  Renais- 
sance with  its  wealth  of  ornament  did  not  so  much 
apply  to  copper  and  brass  as  it  did  to  the  metal- work 
of  the  smith  who  forged  that  which  was  beautiful  and 
ornate  in  iron  on  his  anvil.  Yet  some  of  those  florid 
designs  were  reproduced  by  the  brassfounder. 

After  the  Restoration  the  art  treasures  which  had 
been  destroyed  during  the  Commonwealth  were 
replaced,  as  evidenced  by  the  Regalia  in  the  Tower, 

115 


116  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


where  there  is  so  much  silver-gilt  and  gold  plate 
which  represents  the  more  decorative  art  of  that 
period.  In  that  famous  collection  of  national 
Regalia,  symbols  of  office,  and  vessels  used  on  rare 
occasions,  there  is  the  alms-dish  used  for  the  distri- 
bution of  the  King’s  doles  on  Maundy  Thursday.  It 
bears  the  Royal  cipher  of  William  and  Mary,  and 
contrasts  with  the  other  plate  in  that  it  is  remarkably 
plain,  typical  in  its  decoration  with  the  earlier  metal- 
work of  the  days  of  Queen  Anne  and  those  years 
which  immediately  followed  her  reign.  When  we 
walk  through  some  of  the  once  select,  although  now 
not  much  used,  thoroughfares  in  London  and  admire 
the  stately  old  houses  which  may  be  seen  still  in 
some  of  the  Metropolitan  squares,  especially  in  the 
open  thoroughfare  known  as  Queen  Anne’s  Gate,  we 
are  inclined  to  wonder  whether  after  all  “Queen 
Anne  is  dead.”  That  hackneyed  expression  used  in 
a humorous  sense  at  times  is  certainly  not  true  in 
so  far  as  the  remarkable  developments  in  building 
operations  and  the  characteristic  decorations  of 
Queen  Anne’s  day  live  still  not  only  in  the  old 
houses  which  are  still  undisturbed,  but  in  the  designs 
and  characteristic  patterns  which  were  then  adopted 
by  metal-workers  and  others,  their  beauty  and  grace 
being  recognized  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are 
to-day  among  the  much  copied  antiques. 

The  Influence  of  the  Guilds. 

It  may  be  convenient  here  to  refer  to  the  influence 
of  the  old  City  guilds,  which  for  so  long  a time 
acted  beneficially,  keeping  the  craftsmen  of  their 


LATER  METAL- WORK 


117 


day  up  to  the  mark,  maintaining  the  purity  of  metal 
and  other  materials  used,  and  encouraging  and 
fostering  the  attainment  of  the  highest  skill  in 
artistic  workmanship. 

The  City  Companies  have  long  ceased  to  exercise 
active  control  over  individual  craftsmen  ; some  would 
say  that  trade  unions  have  taken  their  place,  and 
others  would  point  to  the  altered  conditions  of  manu- 
facture and  of  trade  which  exist  now.  None  can 
deny,  however,  that  the  influence  of  those  early 
pioneers  is  still  felt,  and  the  basis  which  they  laid 
down  as  the  art  of  the  later  period  of  English  crafts- 
manship, amongst  which  we  find  the  greater  number 
of  our  collectable  curios,  remains  to-day  the  founda- 
tion on  which  modern  developments  are  built  up. 
The  Braziers’  Company  was  once  an  important  guild  in 
connection  with  metal.  Many  years  ago  the  Braziers 
joined  the  Armourers,  claiming,  however,  a monopoly 
of  all  copper  and  brasswork.  By  an  Authority 
received  from  James  II  the  members  of  the  Braziers’ 
Company  were  granted  the  right  to  search  and  prove 
all  copper  and  brasswork  wrought  with  a hammer 
within  the  City  of  London.  It  is  said  that  their 
Charter  is  still  in  force,  although  their  rights  and 
privileges  are  now  sinecures.  Few  members  of  the 
old  City  companies  have  now  any  direct  connection 
with  the  crafts  with  which  their  names  are  associated. 
They  exist,  however,  and  use  some  of  the  funds  at 
their  disposal  for  the  encouragement  and  develop- 
ment of  the  modern  crafts  which  have  evolved  from 
the  older  foundations  with  which  they  were  asso- 
ciated. Now  and  then  important  exhibitions  are 


118  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


held  at  which  examples  of  the  old  and  the  new  are 
shown,  not  always  redounding  to  the  credit  of  the 
antique.  Some  few  years  ago  a very  interesting 
competitive  exhibition  was  held  at  Ironmongers’ 
Hall  at  the  instigation  of  the  Worshipful  Company 
of  Founders,  by  whom  prizes  were  given  for  artistic 
metal-work  made  by  living  craftsmen  who  had 
studied  antique  metal-work  and  had  caught  some- 
what of  the  spirit  of  the  old  artists  in  copper  and 
brass.  The  competition  was  keen  and  many  of 
the  exhibits  very  beautiful.  The  winner  of  the  first 
prize  had  modelled  a goat  from  life.  The  second 
prize  went  to  the  modeller  of  a calf  which  was  cast  in 
bronze  ; the  third  prize  being  awarded  for  a splen- 
didly modelled  lioness.  In  another  division  prizes 
were  given  for  bells  ; the  first  prize  was  awarded  to  the 
founder  of  a church  bell  cast  in  loam,  and  the  second 
prize  to  the  designer  and  founder  of  a bell  on  which 
were  exceedingly  well-modelled  representations  of 
the  Resurrection.  In  all  these  examples  the  influence 
of  the  antique  was  very  conspicuous. 

The  impetus  which  has  been  given  to  modern 
copper  smithing  by  the  Arts  and  Crafts  Society 
through  its  exhibitions  has  given  quite  a different 
conception  of  the  art  from  that  which  was  formerly 
held.  Instead  of  being  a common  craft,  working  in 
copper  and  brass  has  become  one  of  the  fine  arts,  a 
hobby  much  practised,  and  the  results  appreciated. 
The  late  William  Morris,  at  one  time  President  of 
the  Society,  and  Walter  Crane,  artists  of  no  mean 
order,  exerted  a great  influence  on  the  work  of 
exhibitors.  They  have  raised  the  tone  of  the  work 


119 


FIG.  13.— COPPER  VANE  ON  BILLINGSGATE  FISH  MARKET.  FIG.  14. — THE  CITY  DRAGON  AS  A WEATHER-VANE. 


LATER  METAL- WORK 


121 


done  by  amateurs  and  have  been  the  means  of 
guiding  modern  workers  in  these  metals  in  their 
efforts  to  reproduce  the  antique.  Curios  and  antiques 
have  served  a double  purpose  associated  with  crafts 
such  as  those  under  review,  as  they  give  the  present- 
day  artist  the  foundations  upon  which  to  work. 
They  give  them  evidence  of  styles  and  designs  which 
have  prevailed  in  the  past  and  models  upon  which 
to  build  the  art  of  the  future.  Briefly,  among  the 
best  works  of  to-day  fashioned  on  the  arts  and  crafts 
of  the  coppersmiths  of  old  are  the  beautiful  metal 
dogs  and  fire-hearth  appointments.  There  are  the 
copper  grilles,  exquisite  in  design  and  useful  for 
many  purposes  ; copper  lanterns  and  brass  lamps  of 
great  variety ; copper  candlesticks,  as  well  as  the 
beaten  metal  candelabra  and  electroliers,  also  over- 
mantel panels  and  beaten  copper  roundels,  all 
worthy  objects  for  the  craftsmen  of  the  present 
day  to  follow.  Perhaps  the  most  elaborate  pro- 
ductions based  on  the  antique  are  the  ecclesiastical 
brasses  of  which  there  is  ample  choice  in  the  old 
brasswork  in  so  many  cathedrals  and  parish 
churches. 

Architectural  Metal -Work. 

Many  years  ago  architects  not  only  designed  the 
main  fabric  and  supervised  the  building  of  houses, 
such  as  those  incidentally  referred  to  being  erected 
in  the  days  of  Queen  Anne,  but  they  were  deeply 
interested  in  the  metal-work  which  acted  as  exterior 
ornamentation,  and  to  a large  extent  contributed  to 
the  beauty  of  their  architectural  designs.  After  the 


122  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Great  Fire  of  London  swept  away  so  much  of  the 
ancient  residential  portion  of  the  old  city,  and  took 
with  it  the  Gothic  and  early  mediaeval  churches, 
there  was  a great  revival  in  building  operations. 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  and  his  fellow- workers  put  up 
more  than  sixty  new  churches  within  the  City,  and 
although  to  some  extent  the  contour  of  the  old 
streets  was  observed,  the  newer  buildings  must  have 
presented  an  astonishing  transformation  scene,  for 
from  the  few  old  relics  left  of  London  before  the 
Fire  we  can  form  some  slight  idea  of  what  the  City 
must  have  looked  like  then. 

The  collector  of  copper  and  brass  takes  an  interest 
in  metal* work  other  than  that  which  he  can  collect, 
and  admires  works  of  art  with  which  the  architects 
of  olden  times  enriched  their  chief  buildings.  It  is 
true  a considerable  portion  of  the  exterior  metal- 
work attached  to  the  freehold,  and  of  the  gates  and 
palasades  surrounding  the  more  important  erections, 
are  of  iron.  There  are  enough  examples  of  copper- 
work,  however,  to  show  us  the  skill  of  the  old  crafts- 
men who  worked  on  years  after  the  Charter  granted 
by  James  II  to  the  Braziers’  Company  had  become 
a dead  letter.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  at 
the  same  time  decorative  examples  of  copper-work 
on  the  loftier  buildings  is  found  in  the  weather-vanes, 
which  were  sometimes  gilt,  at  others  painted.  In 
the  earlier  days  the  emblems  selected  had  some 
bearing  on  the  ownership  of  the  building  or  the 
purposes  for  which  it  was  to  be  used.  There  were 
well-known  rules,  too,  governing  the  type  of  weather- 
vane.  These  are  recognizable  in  the  older  examples. 


LATER  METAL-WORK 


123 


They  have  been  neglected,  however,  in  later  years, 
and  the  nondescript  designs  chosen  by  builders  and 
modelled  according  to  the  whim  of  the  designer  at 
the  present  day  show  little  regard  for  the  principles 
laid  down  by  those  early  builders  and  metal-workers. 
The  etiquette  of  the  weather-vane  was  simple  enough 
to  observe.  On  towers,  castles,  and  secular  buildings 
a banner  was  the  correct  device,  whereas  on 
ecclesiastical  edifices  it  was  the  barn-door  fowl.  It 
is  said  by  an  old  authority  that  the  cock  was  the 
emblem  of  clerical  vigilance,  not  unassociated  with 
the  Biblical  story  of  St.  Peter  ; others  more  sceptical 
as  to  the  origin  tell  us  that  the  large  tail  of  the  barn- 
door fowl  was  well  suited  to  turn  truly  to  the  wind. 
From  these  simple  principles  evolved  established 
rules  which  ordered  that  the  coat-of-arms  or  crest  of 
the  owner  of  a building  should  be  incorporated  in  the 
design  of  the  weather-vane,  and  on  ecclesiastical 
buildings  the  symbol  of  the  patron  saint  was  to  take 
the  place  of  the  weather-cock.  As  typical  examples 
to  be  seen  in  London  streets  the  weather-vanes  on 
the  four  turrets  of  the  White  Tower  of  the  Tower  fly 
the  Royal  Arms  in  the  form  of  miniature  Royal 
Standards.  In  Tudor  days  the  emblem  was  usually 
represented  sitting  on  a slender  pedestal,  carrying  an 
upright  rod  on  which  the  flag  or  decorated  plate  of 
metal  which  acted  as  the  weather-vane  was  attached. 
In  the  accompanying  illustrations  three  types  of 
symbolical  weather-vanes  are  shown.  Fig.  13  repre- 
sents one  of  the  copper  vanes  on  Billingsgate  Fish 
Market,  symbolical  of  the  occupation  of  those  who 
frequent  that  famous  mart.  In  Fig.  14  is  seen  the 


124  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


fabled  dragon  of  the  City  of  London,  and  in  Fig.  15 
the  copper  cock  vane,  one  of  the  four  fixed  over 
Smithfield  Market. 

There  are  many  ecclesiastical  emblems  visible 
during  a morning  stroll  through  the  streets  of 
London.  Among  those  readily  seen  are  the  key  vane 
on  St.  Peter’s,  Cornhill,  and  the  emblematic  gridiron 
on  St.  Lawrence’s  Church.  On  St.  Michael’s  Church, 
Queenhithe,  there  is  a copper  ship,  the  hull  of  which 
holds  just  one  bushel  of  grain.  This  vane  is 
interesting  in  that  the  emblem  has  reference  to 
Queenhithe,  once  a famous  wharf,  rather  than  to  the 
patron  saint.  The  Hithe  is  interesting  in  its  old 
associations,  in  that  the  tolls  of  that  wharf  were  given 
to  Queen  Eleanor  by  Henry  II  as  pin  money,  subse- 
quent queens  of  England  collecting  the  revenue  for 
their  personal  use.  The  grasshopper  on  the  Royal 
Exchange  is  the  same  vane  that  surmounted  the 
more  ancient  building  which  preceded  the  one  now 
standing.  The  grasshopper  was  the  crest  of  Sir 
Thomas  Gresham,  by  whom  the  first  Exchange  was 
built  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  This  vane, 
also  of  copper,  is  fully  1 1 ft.  in  length,  and  in 
miniature  was  reproduced  as  the  sign  of  the  banking 
house  in  Lombard  Street  kept  by  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham. 

The  Door  Knocker. 

The  common  door  knocker,  essentially  a piece  of 
metal  associated  to-day  with  utilitarian  purposes,  is 
not  without  romantic  associations.  It  has  been  a 
much  collected  object ; easily  detached,  too,  for  it  is 


LATER  METAL-WORK 


125 


said  that  many  of  the  old  knockers,  or  rappers  as 
they  were  formerly  called,  which  a few  years  ago  could 
be  bought  quite  cheaply  from  the  marine  store  dealers, 
had  been  surreptitiously  purloined  by  thieves,  who  for 
the  sake  of  a few  coppers  had  taken  some  risk  even 
on  a dark  night.  Some  old  houses  are  still  rich  in 
antiquarian  door  knockers,  before  the  days  of  front 
door  bells  and  electric  pushes  more  a necessity  than 
they  are  now.  Their  use  was  by  no  means  confined 
to  private  houses,  on  which  they  figured  in  a variety 
of  forms,  but  among  the  earlier  examples  are 
ponderous  knockers  of  copper  and  brass,  once 
regarded  as  an  essential  feature  on  the  great  oaken 
doors  of  cathedrals  and  churches  and  other  important 
buildings.  In  the  days  when  the  precincts  of  certain 
ecclesiastical  edifices  were  sanctuary,  the  knocker 
was  the  goal  sought  by  the  criminal  offender  who 
rushed  to  obtain  the  protection  of  sanctuary.  One 
of  the  most  famous  historical  knockers  which  has 
been  copied  by  modern  founders,  and  is  seen  in 
collections  of  so-called  antiques  and  in  use  as  a 
modern  replica  on  room  doors  in  twentieth-century 
houses,  is  the  famous  knocker  which  did  service  for 
so  many  years  on  the  Sanctuary  door  of  Durham 
Cathedral.  It  is  a relic  of  great  antiquity,  having 
been  placed  on  the  door  prior  to  the  reign  of  King 
Stephen.  Detailing  its  use  as  sanctuary  a con- 
temporary monk  wrote : “ Hereupon  their  leader 
violently  and  repeatedly  struck  the  brass  rings  which 
hang  outside  the  door.”  According  to  the  “ rights  ” 
of  Durham  all  the  churchyard  and  all  the  circuit 
thereof  was  sanctuary  for  all  manner  of  men  whatever 


126  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


their  offences  had  been.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
in  olden  time,  still  perpetuated  by  its  name,  there 
was  sanctuary  just  outside  the  Abbey  of  West- 
minster, the  right  being  retained  even  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  in  1540.  There  were 
similar  places  of  refuge  for  criminals  at  the  Minories, 
Whitefriars,  and  the  old  Mint  in  Southwark.  The 
Durham  knocker,  around  which  some  interest  centres, 
was  in  the  form  of  an  animal’s  head,  in  which  are  now 
two  empty  eye-sockets,  behind  which  it  is  said  lights 
were  placed,  although  it  is  probable  that  they  may 
have  been  filled  with  crystal  balls. 

The  brass  lion  knocker  of  Brazenose  College, 
Oxford,  has  won  some  notoriety,  and  has  been 
much  copied.  The  legends  regarding  its  ancient 
association  with  the  College,  and  the  migration  of 
the  students  to  Stamford  in  1334,  and  the  subsequent 
return  of  the  knocker  to  Oxford  after  it  had  been 
in  other  hands  for  many  years,  vary,  and  are  not 
altogether  borne  out  by  proven  facts.  The  brass- 
nosed knocker  does  not  appear  to  have  given  the 
name  to  the  College,  notwithstanding  the  very  gener- 
ally accepted  belief.  Indeed,  according  to  several 
authorities  the  name  originated  in  the  words 
bracinum,  malt,  and  house , a brew-house  having  been 
incorporated  in  the  older  buildings.  The  old 
knocker,  however,  is  still  regarded  as  historic. 

Few  collectors  of  old  copper  and  brass  can  hope 
to  possess  such  historical  relics,  nor  yet  are  they 
likely  to  secure  any  of  the  massive  knockers,  some  of 
which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  at  South  Kensington.  They  can,  however, 


LATER  METAL- WORK 


127 


readily  obtain  brass  knockers  dating  from  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  and  especially  the  ornate  knockers 
of  Georgian  times,  many  of  them  bearing  traces  of 
the  Adams’  style  and  of  Chippendale  influence. 
Some  knockers  are  peculiar  in  that  the  design  is  not 
always  apparent.  In  Fig.  1 6 is  shown  a fine 
knocker  of  the  much  favoured  armorial  style,  and  in 
Fig.  17  is  given  a drop  knocker  in  the  form  of  a 
dolphin.  Some  of  the  knockers,  repeated  in  great 
numbers  in  certain  districts,  are  essentially  local,  such 
as  a hook  and  worm  pattern,  which  took  its  origin  in 
a Sussex  village.  It  was  the  invention  of  a local 
smith,  an  admirer  of  Izaac  Walton,  who  it  is  said 
frequently  passed  his  smithy  door  on  his  way  to 
a fishing  stream.  Technically  described  by  a 
fisherman,  this  knocker  is  said  to  be  “ a lobworm  of 
buxom  proportions  dangling  from  a hook.”  There 
are  others,  equally  interesting  examples,  to  be  met 
with  in  out-of-the-way  places.  One  of  the  advan- 
tages of  collecting  these  common  objects  in  brass 
and  other  metals  is  that  they  can  still  be  made  to 
serve  a useful  purpose  on  room  doors,  although  the 
rat-tat  of  the  larger  specimens  is  sometimes  startling. 

“ Shut,  shut  the  door,  good  John  ! fatigued,  I said  ; 

Tie  up  the  knocker ; say  I’m  sick,  I’m  dead.” 

Pope. 

Interior  Metal- Work. 

The  collectable  brasses  (other  than  domestic 
kitchen  brass  and  copper-work  which  is  dealt  with 
in  Chapter  VIII)  belonging  to  the  later  period  of 
art,  and  chiefly  associated  with  the  builder’s  fur- 
nishing and  cabinetmaker’s  craft,  include  quite  a 


128  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


variety  of  interesting  objects.  In  the  days  before 
Victorian  times,  when  art  almost  died  out,  the 
coppersmith  and  the  brazier  produced  some  beauti- 
ful objects  for  the  ornamentation  and  furnishing  of 
the  home,  many  of  which  have  been  handed  down 
to  us,  and  form  valuable  additions  to  a collection  of 
metal.  This  period,  as  it  has  been  already  inti- 
mated, has  been  very  much  copied,  especially  just 
before  the  artists  of  the  later  Edwardian  days  struck 
out  new  lines  and  founded  a school  which  has  been 
called  that  of  the  “ nouvre  art.”  Now  and  then  there 
have  been  attempts  to  blend  the  old  with  the  new, 
and  the  collector  of  the  genuine  antique  desiring 
purity  of  style  in  his  specimens  should  not  neglect 
any  opportunities  he  may  have  of  examining  and 
comparing  the  various  styles.  The  arrangements  for 
lighting  and  heating  houses  were  until  quite  recently 
inefficient.  There  was,  however,  still  greater  neglect 
in  providing  for  the  comfort  of  the  attenders  at 
churches,  which  were  frequently  cold  and  chilly. 
Attempts  were  made  by  individuals  to  remedy 
this,  and  among  the  curios  associated  with  heating 
purposes  are  hand-warmers  and  foot-warmers.  The 
earlier  types  of  hand-warmers,  or  chaufferettes,  were 
spherical  metal  boxes  or  balls,  in  the  interior  of 
which,  by  an  arrangement  of  chains  or  rings,  a 
cup  containing  a red-hot  ball  of  metal  or  a piece 
of  charcoal  could  be  retained  in  an  upright  position. 
These  portable  warming  stoves  were  also  used  in 
many  houses  and  on  many  occasions.  Reference 
is  made  to  such  warmers  in  Chapter  XV,  where  a 
Dutch  foot-warmer  is  illustrated.  It  is  said  that 


FIG.  l6. — BRONZE  KNOCKER  OF  THE  ARMORIAL  TYPE. 


FIG.  17. — BRASS  DROP  KNOCKER  IN  THE  FORM  OF  A DOLPHIN. 


FIG.  l8. — BRASS  WELL  BUCKET. 


129 


LATER  METAL-WORK 


131 


it  was  a common  practice  years  ago  for  a servant 
man  or  maid  to  follow  a lady  when  attending  church, 
carrying  a charcoal  burner  and  placing  it  upon  the 
floor  at  the  lady’s  feet,  then  gracefully  retiring  into 
some  less  conspicuous  part  of  the  building  until  the 
service  was  over.  In  the  days  when  streets  were 
badly  lighted  lanterns  were  commonly  hung  out- 
side houses  and  in  entrance  halls,  some  reference 
to  the  more  portable  types  being  given  in  Chapter  IX. 

The  metal-work  of  the  interior,  such  as  lock  plates, 
hinges,  and  door  knobs,  was  frequently  of  brass,  and 
very  ornate  some  of  these  quaint  old  fittings  are. 
Perhaps  the  most  interesting  are  those  which  were 
much  used  on  the  more  portable  sideboards,  corner 
cupboards,  and  chests.  It  would  appear  that  the 
extravagance  in  design  reached  its  height  when 
Chippendale’s  influence  extended  to  the  metal 
ornaments  on  the  furniture,  as  well  as  to  the  scroll- 
work and  carving  of  the  woodwork.  Some  of  this 
metal-work  gives  evidence  of  Chinese  influence,  or 
as  it  was  then  called,  Chinese  taste,  shown  in  the 
introduction  of  the  mandarin  and  the  fakir,  Oriental 
landscapes,  palanquins,  and  Chinese  trees  and  flowers, 
even  in  English  metal-work.  The  collector  of  such 
things  finds  a wealth  of  brass  in  even  escutcheons 
and  handle  plates  (see  Chapter  XIX). 

There  is  some  very  rich  brasswork  in  the  frames 
of  the  old  banner  screens,  made  of  beautiful  needle- 
work panels,  over  which  so  much  time  must  have 
been  spent.  A remarkably  fine  banner  holder  in  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  is  typical  of  many  others. 
We  have  only  to  look  round  the  house  and  imagine 

8 


132  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


how  it  looked  a century  ago  to  discover  that  the 
collectable  objects  of  copper  and  brass,  even  when 
domestic  utensils  and  curios  have  been  removed, 
included  many  other  objects  besides  those  referred 
to  which  may  be  secured  by  careful  and  persistent 
search  among  the  old  shops  and  builders’  odds  and 
ends. 


VII 


CHURCH 
BRASS  WORK 


fig.  19.— curious  double  candlestick. 
[In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


135 


CHAPTER  VII 

CHURCH  BRASSWORK 


Candlesticks — Altar  brasses — Metal  architectural  ornament — Memorial 
brasses. 


The  admirer  of  metal-work  finds  examples  of  the 
early  brassworker’s  art  in  ecclesiastical  edifices. 
Although  in  years  gone  by  there  has  been  spoilia- 
tion  in  many  churches,  and  some  of  the  most 
valued  objects  in  sacred  buildings  have  been  taken 
for  secular  uses,  there  are  still  many  treasured  relics 
which  are  almost  unique  specimens  of  the  metal- 
worker’s art.  It  is  a wonder  so  much  has  been  pre- 
served, for  too  enthusiastic  authorities  have  often 
displaced  the  old  and  substituted  newer  objects  of 
no  antiquarian  value.  In  the  past  in  restoration 
work  much  that  would  have  now  been  venerated 
as  antique  has  been  destroyed.  The  collector 
cannot  be  advised  to  bring  pressure  to  bear  on 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  order  that  he  may 
obtain  such  curios  for  his  museum.  Oftentimes 
the  brasses  in  themselves  would  present  no  special 
interest.  It  is  rather  in  their  associations  that  the 


137 


138  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


antiquary  sees  much  to  admire,  and  to  strip  brasses 
from  the  wall  or  memorial  tablets  from  tombs  is 
vandalism  and  sacrilege  which  cannot  be  encouraged. 
There  is,  however,  a peculiar  beauty  in  the  metal- 
work which  may  be  seen  and  admired  in  old 
churches,  and  the  massive  grandeur  of  grilles, 
railings,  and  gallery  fronts  add  to  the  beauty  of 
such  buildings  as  a whole.  In  addition  to  these 
architectural  brasses  there  are  many  portable 
antiques,  ornate  and  historical. 

Ecclesiastical  brasses  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups.  First,  there  are  those  which  have  been 
consecrated  to  religious  purposes,  including  the 
sacred  vessels  of  the  altar  and  the  metal  symbols 
used  in  Divine  worship,  and  then  there  are  the  metal 
objects  which  serve  the  purpose  of  ornament  and  to 
some  extent  utility.  Among  the  more  decorative 
pieces  of  the  first  group  are  processional  crosses, 
many  of  which  are  very  beautiful,  in  some  cases 
being  ornamented  with  precious  stones  and  enamels. 
Then  there  are  the  crosses  on  the  altar,  if  anything 
still  more  decorative,  for  in  fashioning  them,  espe- 
cially for  use  in  connection  with  the  old  Gothic 
cathedrals  and  churches  in  this  country  and  on  the 
Continent  in  mediaeval  days,  the  artists  concentrated 
their  best  endeavours  to  produce  metal-work  worthy 
of  the  sacred  purpose  for  which  it  was  to  be  used. 
Some  of  the  bishops’  and  archbishops’  crooks  in  the 
earlier  days  were  made  of  ivory  ; then  metal-work, 
richly  chased  and  jewelled,  came  into  vogue,  and 
latterly  some  of  the  crooks  are  fine  examples  of  the 
metal-workers’  art. 


CHURCH  BRASS  WORK 


139 


Candlesticks. 

The  ornaments  of  the  altar  in  Christian  churches 
are  for  the  most  part  simple  in  design.  There  are, 
however,  many  varieties  of  candlesticks,  varying  in 
size  and  degree  from  the  larger  ones  which  hold  the 
Communion  candles  to  the  decorative  seven-branched 
candelabra  of  light  and  tasteful  design.  The  more 
important  specimens  are  the  massive  candlesticks 
which  are  used  in  the  chancel  and  in  some  of  the 
larger  cathedrals  in  other  parts  of  the  building. 
Such  ecclesiastical  bronzes  are  seldom  obtainable, 
although  there  are  some  fine  examples  in  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  in  this  country,  and 
in  the  chief  Continental  museums.  The  donors  of 
such  objects  spared  no  expense,  and  the  modellers 
and  founders  treated  such  work  very  elaborately. 
Flemish  and  Spanish  churches  are  especially  rich 
in  large  candlesticks,  and  many  of  the  Continental 
cathedrals  possess  wonderful  examples.  The  pro- 
minence which  has  been  given  to  candlesticks  in 
public  worship  dates  back  to  a period  long  before 
the  foundation  of  the  Christian  Church,  for  the 
seven-branched  candlestick  was  an  important  feature 
in  the  Jewish  ceremonial.  When  the  Roman  con- 
querors took  possession  of  Jerusalem,  among  the 
treasures  taken  from  the  Temple  on  the  sack  of 
the  city,  they  carried  away  the  golden  candlesticks 
from  the  altar.  So  important  was  this  sacred  trophy 
that  it  was  represented  on  the  triumphal  arch  of 
Titus,  preserving  to  the  artists  of  the  future  its 
general  characteristics  of  design. 

The  great  bronze  candlesticks  in  St.  Paul’s 


140  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Cathedral  and  in  other  English  churches  are  to  be 
admired  but  not  collected ; nevertheless  there  are 
some  fine  candlesticks  in  bronze  and  of  polished 
brass  offered  for  sale  in  the  curio  shops,  and  from 
time  to  time  brought  under  the  hammer  in  the 
London  auction  rooms.  The  illustration  given  in 
Fig.  19  is  a remarkable  example  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  A fine 
Venetian  bronze  candelabrum  (one  of  a pair),  now  in 
a private  collection,  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 

Altar  Brasses. 

Most  of  the  church  plate  so-called  was  of  pewter 
and  silver  in  early  times  ; in  more  modern  days  of 
silver,  and  sometimes  of  metal  plated  with  silver. 
There  are,  however,  examples  of  metal  chalices  of 
bronze,  some  of  which  have  been  found  in  Ireland. 
The  altar  brasses  in  pre-Reformation  days  included 
brass  censers  and  incense  vessels,  very  interesting  ex- 
amples of  which  are  now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  being  illustrated  in  Fig.  21.  Of  vases  and 
other  decorative  altar  brasses  there  are  many.  Some, 
probably,  took  their  origin  in  older  customs  and  were 
symbolical  ; the  vases  nowadays  are  for  the  most 
part  used  as  receptacles  for  flowers. 

Bordering  on  the  secular  vessels,  yet  associated 
with  the  altar,  there  are  the  alms-dishes,  of  which 
there  are  a great  number  in  private  collections  of 
metal.  They  are  mostly  of  brass,  some  quite  plain, 
others  engraved  and  highly  ornamental.  Some  little 
time  ago  there  was  a special  display  of  alms-dishes, 
two-score  or  more  in  number,  exhibited  at  the  Kel- 


FIG.  20. — VENETIAN  CANDELABRUM  (ONE  OF  A PAIR). 

141 


CHURCH  BRASSWORK 


143 


vingrove  Exhibition  at  Glasgow.  Some  were  covered 
over  with  scriptural  pictorial  designs,  among  the 
favourite  being  those  illustrating  the  old  story  of 
Adam  and  Eve  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  ; the  episode 
of  Samson  and  the  lion  ; and  the  visit  of  the  two 
spies  to  the  Promised  Land,  returning  carrying  a 
large  bunch  of  grapes.  Such  alms-dishes  vary  in 
size,  seldom  less  than  12  in.  in  diameter,  but  ranging 
up  to  20  in.  Sometimes  the  collector  is  puzzled  to 
find  what  he  may  regard  as  inappropriate  mottoes 
on  church  vessels.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  an 
uncommon  thing  to  meet  with  religious  devices  or 
pious  mottoes  on  platters  and  bowls  which  were 
obviously  used  as  domestic  vessels.  This  fact  is 
explained  in  that  at  one  time  there  was  but  little 
difference  between  secular  and  ecclesiastical  plate, 
and  the  vessels  were  often  used  indiscriminately 
for  church  purposes  and  for  the  use  of  the  house- 
hold. 

Metal  Architectural  Ornament. 

The  lectern  is  frequently  of  bronze  or  brass.  The 
eagle  with  spread  wings  or  other  designs  adopted  by 
the  metal-workers  gave  the  artist  plenty  of  scope. 
The  altar  rail  and  in  a few  instances  the  metal  screen 
and  grille  are  composed  of  elaborately  chased  brass 
or  copper-work,  sometimes  cast,  at  others  hammered. 
Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  the 
coppersmith  in  connection  with  church  metal-work 
is  the  ball  and  cross  of  St.  Paul’s,  surmounting  the 
great  dome.  It  was  made  in  the  year  1821  by 
Benham  and  Froud,  an  old  firm  of  coppersmiths. 


144  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


An  illustration  of  this  gigantic  piece  of  work  is 
given  in  Fig.  22.  When  viewed  from  beneath  few 
would  imagine  that  the  cross,  although  so  high  up, 
is  30  ft.  in  height,  and  that  its  weight  is  upwards 
of  one  and  a half  tons.  The  occasional  gilding  of 
this  triumph  of  the  coppersmith’s  art  is  in  itself  a 
costly  procedure. 

Memorial  Brasses. 

The  visitor  to  the  country  church,  as  well  as 
the  larger  cathedral,  finds  much  antiquarian  interest 
in  the  tombs  and  monuments,  and  in  the  memorial 
tablets  of  the  illustrious  dead  the  history  of  their 
lives  may  often  be  read.  In  the  older  tombs  the 
work  of  the  sculptors  in  marble  is  frequently  enriched 
by  the  addition  of  appropriate  tablets  of  brass,  some- 
times inlaid  with  enamels.  One  of  the  most  noted 
tombs  is  that  in  the  centre  of  the  chapel  of 
Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey,  the  tomb  itself 
being  closely  guarded  by  the  massive  railings,  which 
are  of  brass.  The  visitor  to  that  chapel  notes  with 
interest  the  brass  stall  plates  so  rich  in  enamels,  on 
which  are  the  arms  and  crests  of  the  knights  who 
in  times  past  occupied  those  stalls  and  hung  their 
banners  over  them. 

It  may  be  contended  that  tombs  and  monuments 
cannot  be  collected,  but  those  who  visit  such  places 
may  fill  their  notebooks  with  interesting  data,  and 
they  may  carry  away  with  them  accurate  records 
and  rubbings  of  the  monumental  tablets  and  the 
brasses  on  the  tombs  (for  instructions  how  to  take 
rubbings,  see  Wrinkles,  p.  393).  Such  rubbings  of 


145 


FIG.  21.  BRONZE  INCENSE  BURNER  AND  INCENSE  BOAT. 
[In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


CHURCH  BRASSWORK 


147 


old  brasses  can  be  kept  in  a portfolio  or  mounted 
and  hung  upon  walls.  They  form  a record,  too,  of 
the  engraver’s  art,  which  was  modified  and  altered 
to  suit  the  change  which  went  on  in  architectural 
design  and  to  some  extent  in  social  and  religious 
customs.  The  variety  of  brasses  is  seen  when  a 
good  collection  of  rubbings  is  classified  and  arranged 
according  to  style,  period,  or  locality.  Some  dis- 
tricts yield  prolific  returns.  Throughout  the  coun- 
ties of  Gloucester,  Somerset,  and  Norfolk  many  may 
be  obtained,  the  more  interesting  specimens  being 
secured  from  tombs  dating  from  the  thirteenth 
to  the  seventeenth  century.  From  such  a series 
armorial  representation  as  it  became  less  real  and  of 
smaller  importance  can  be  traced.  The  costumes 
of  the  period,  too,  are  very  clearly  shown,  for  in  such 
a collection  of  brasses  the  value  of  armour  in  war  is 
seen  to  change.  In  the  earlier  examples  there  is  the 
chain  mail  of  the  cross-legged  knights  as  seen  on 
the  early  brasses  of  the  Crusaders,  the  mediaeval 
armour  of  the  Middle  Ages  when  it  had  reached  its 
strength,  and  the  brasses  of  the  Stuart  days  when 
the  ornamental  armour  of  that  period  had  to  a large 
extent  lost  its  utility. 

The  ecclesiastical  brasses  on  the  tombs  of  bishops 
and  other  church  dignitaries  show  the  change  which 
took  place  very  gradually  in  the  vestments  worn, 
and  indicate  the  alteration  in  ecclesiastical  ritual 
in  the  cathedrals  and  churches  at  the  time  of 
the  Reformation.  The  dissolution  of  the  monas- 
teries and  the  sacrilege  which  took  place  in  the 
dismantled  churches  and  religious  houses  caused 


148  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


valuable  relics  to  be  sold  for  old  metal,  and  it  was 
then  that  many  old  monuments  and  tombs  lost  their 
brasses.  The  influence  of  book  knowledge  and  the 
change  which  came  about  in  the  style  of  script  after 
the  introduction  of  the  printing-press  is  seen  in  the 
evolution  of  the  lettering  on  church  brasses.  Indeed, 
in  some  of  the  older  ones  the  form  of  the  letters 
is  the  only  indication  left  of  the  date  of  their 
engraving. 

The  engraver’s  art  progressed  with  the  art  of  the 
period  in  which  he  lived,  and  in  a collection  of  rub- 
bings may  be  seen  the  gradual  training  of  the  eye 
and  hand  until  from  meaningless  pictures  without 
background  or  perspective  the  artist  was  able  to 
engrave  on  metal  a beautifully  realistic  picture  of 
the  subject  he  had  chosen.  As  a guide  to  a few 
indications  of  the  period  to  which  brasses  belong, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  decorative  canopies 
on  monumental  brasses  belong  chiefly  to  the  ornate 
period  of  art.  The  embattled  canopies  and  the 
change  to  the  decorative  Gothic  tell  of  the  progress 
in  ecclesiastical  architecture  until  it  reached  its 
height  between  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, later  brasses  telling  of  its  gradual  decadence. 
Of  the  variety  of  subject  it  would  be  impossible 
to  refer,  for  at  all  ages  there  have  been  many 
who  would  fit  into  niches  between  the  extremes 
of  the  early  fighting  men  amidst  the  nobles 
and  knights  who  fell  in  battle,  and  those  who 
apparently  lived  all  their  lives  in  the  peaceful 
rural  surroundings  of  some  quiet  English  village, 
dying  within  sight  of  the  old  church  where  they 


FIG.  22. — THE  COPPER-GILT  CROSS  ON  ST.  PAUL’S  CATHEDRAL. 


149 


CHURCH  BRASSWORK 


151 


had  worshipped,  and  where  they  were  eventually 
buried. 


“When  some  proud  son  of  man  returns  to  earth, 
Unknown  to  glory,  but  upheld  by  birth, 

The  sculptor’s  art  exhausts  the  pomp  of  woe, 

And  storied  urns  record  who  rests  below  ; 

When  all  is  done,  upon  the  tomb  is  seen, 

Not  what  he  was,  but  what  he  should  have  been.” 

Byron. 


VIII 


DOMESTIC 

UTENSILS 


CHAPTER  VII  I 

DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 

The  kitchen — The  houseplace — Chimney  and  other  ornaments — 
Classified  arrangement. 

A COLLECTION  of  metal-work  representative  of 
domestic  utensils  as  they  were  fashioned  in  very 
early  times,  and  as  they  were  made  in  days  so  far 
forgotten  as  to  render  the  common  objects  of  daily 
use  curios,  is  regarded,  probably,  as  the  most  im- 
portant branch  of  copper  and  brass,  from  a collec- 
tor’s standpoint.  The  collector  may  be  content  with 
gathering  together  a few  examples  of  old  domestic 
metal-work  and  using  them  as  ornamental  reminders 
of  olden  time,  decorating  his  entrance  hall  or  rooms 
furnished  after  the  antique  with  the  objects  he 
gathers  together,  or  he  may  arrange  them  as  in  a 
museum  gallery.  The  display  of  curios  is  at  all 
times  a matter  of  taste,  but  it  is  one  of  some  import- 
ance, especially  in  a branch  of  collecting  so  con- 
spicuous as  copper  and  brass.  We  can  scarcely 
conceive  of  any  real  pleasure  being  derived  from  such 
a hobby,  or  of  such  specimens  being  appreciated  by 
one’s  friends,  when  specimens  so  obviously  out  of  place 

9 155 


156  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


are  shown  in  a modern  dining-room  or  drawing-room 
furnished  in  nouvre  art.  The  Keeper  of  the  London 
Museum,  now  transferred  to  Stafford  House  from 
Kensington  Palace,  has  very  appropriately  arranged 
the  antiquities  of  London  in  their  proper  historical 
and  chronological  sequence,  and  has  grouped  them 
so  that  the  reference  they  bear  to  contemporary 
surroundings  can  be  understood  by  those  who  see 
them  for  the  first  time.  The  photograph  which  we 
reproduce  in  Fig.  23  represents  a corner  in  a well 
made  up  seventeenth-century  room,  in  which  has 
been  gathered  together  some  beautiful  old  oak  fur- 
niture of  that  period.  It  is  panelled  with  oak  which 
has  been  procured  from  old  London  houses  of  con- 
temporary date ; the  doorway  is  a genuine  antique 
from  Bromley-by-Bow,  adding  to  the  appearance 
of  the  room,  for  dts  hinges  and  lock  furniture  are 
splendid  examples  of  the  brasswork  of  that  period. 
Some  pieces  of  Cromwellian  armour,  prominent 
among  which  are  variously  ornamented  helmets  and 
breastplates,  are  arranged  round  the  upper  portion  of 
the  room.  Over  an  old  oak  chest  is  a beautiful  brass 
skimmer,  and  on  the  wall  a seventeenth-century 
brass  bed-warmer,  with  engraved  cover.  On  the  side- 
board is  a huge  key  and  a brass  mortar.  The  lock 
furniture  and  the  drop  handle  on  the  sideboard, 
which  are  of  brass,  are  worthy  of  note.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  room  there  is  a fine  brass  trivet 
standing  in  front  of  the  hearth,  on  which  are  and- 
irons, and  logs  ready  for  the  firing ; close  by  is  a 
quaint  old  candlestick.  Undoubtedly  curios  dis- 
played in  such  a way  interest  and  instruct  those  who 


FIG.  23. — SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY  ROOM  IN  THE  LONDON  MUSEUM. 


157 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


159 


see  them,  and  a room  so  furnished  enthuses  col- 
lectors with  the  desire  to  secure  other  objects  of  an 
appropriate  character  ; this  in  itself  is  an  advantage 
in  that  a representative  collection  is  of  more  general 
interest  than  one  containing  many  objects  of  a 
similar  character. 

The  Kitchen. 

Kitchen  utensils  and  domestic  appliances  which 
the  housewife  of  olden  time  deemed  necessary  are 
of  peculiar  interest  in  that  they  help  us  to  recall 
the  habits  and  customs  of  former  generations.  It 
is  not  always  easy  to  arrange  a model  kitchen  in 
that  there  are  many  old  utensils  of  copper  and  brass 
which  must  have  been  used  side  by  side  as  periods 
overlapped,  although  some  have  a much  older  origin 
than  others.  It  is  said  that  the  kitchens  of  well- 
stocked  old  family  mansions  still  yield  some  curios 
when  thoroughly  examined,  and  that  it  is  not  at 
all  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  there  utensils  the 
object  of  which  has  almost  been  forgotten.  They 
are  relics  of  an  older  day,  and  utensils  which  a 
modern  cook  would  not  deign  to  use.  Such  dis- 
coveries, however,  are  few  and  far  between,  for  the 
melting-pot  and  the  cupidity  of  those  anxious  to 
clear  unnecessary  encumbrances  and  perhaps  make 
a little  towards  refurnishing,  has  left  but  few  objects 
of  interest  in  the  kitchen.  It  is,  however,  there  and 
in  the  old  houseplace  that  we  may  look  for  some- 
thing of  interest.  Some  will  go  on  using  old  vessels 
long  after  newer  utensils  have  taken  their  place  in 
the  more  advanced  households,  and  there  are  some 


160  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


cooks  who  use  successfully  saucepans  and  kettles  of 
almost  antique  pattern  which  the  student  of  the 
cook’s  art  in  the  modern  schools  of  cookery  would 
find  difficult  to  manipulate.  They  have  been  taught 
how  to  make  tasty  dishes  with  aluminium  vessels 
and  enamelled  pans,  whereas  heavy  and  clumsy  brass 
and  copper  utensils  served  their  grandparents.  The 
cook’s  art  is  appreciated  to-day  as  it  was  in  the  past, 
and  at  all  periods  the  domestic  workshop  has  been 
surrounded  with  a halo  of  romance.  Shakespeare 
has  rendered  the  caldron  of  olden  time  memorable 
in  “ Macbeth.”  Of  the  caldron  boiling  in  the  dark 
cave  he  makes  the  witches  cry  : 

“ Double,  double  toil  and  trouble. 

Fire,  burn;  and  caldron  bubble.” 

The  cooking-pot  is  the  sustainer  of  life,  in  that  it 
gives  strength  to  the  weary  and  to  the  starving. 
To  the  poor  dumb  creatures,  however,  it  is  the  end 
of  life,  and  in  savagery  human  life  has  been  sacrificed 
to  the  gluttony  of  fellow-men.  Wonderful  stories 
are  at  times  told  of  great  feasts  and  of  the  mag- 
nificence of  the  kitchens  of  olden  time,  where  the 
vessels  and  the  cooking-pots  were  of  extravagant 
size,  making  up,  perhaps,  for  the  fewer  culinary 
utensils,  for  in  early  days  the  furnishings  of  the 
kitchen  were  few  in  number  although  massive  and 
strong.  Many  of  the  baronial  halls  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  the  homes  of  wealthy  landowners  in  more 
recent  days,  have  been  the  scene  of  great  feasts. 
Merrie  England  rejoiced  on  such  occasions  when 
the  roasting-jack  and  the  spit  contributed  to  the 


FIG.  24. — BRONZE  CALDRON. 
(In  Trinity  Hospital , Leicester .) 


161 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


163 


success  of  the  feast,  and  the  caldron  or  cooking-pot 
boiled  upon  the  open  hearth.  In  some  old  kitchens 
there  are  preserved  ponderous  bronze  and  copper 
pots,  some  so  large  that  we  can  scarcely  imagine 
that  they  were  made  for  actual  use.  In  the  hall  of 
Trinity  Hospital  at  Leicester  there  is  preserved  a 
large  caldron  of  bell  metal,  holding  upwards  of  sixty 
gallons,  which  has  been  used  as  the  cooking-pot  of 
the  institution  from  its  foundation  until  quite  recent 
times.  This  quaint  old  relic,  now  venerated  as  a 
curio,  is  locally  called  the  Duke  of  Lancaster’s 
porridge-pot,  for  it  is  said  that  it  was  made  to  the 
order  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  in  1331  (see 
Fig.  24).  Not  far  removed  from  the  corner  where 
the  old  metal  pot  is  shown  to  visitors  there  is  a 
massive  nutmeg-grater,  a kitchen  relic  of  olden  time, 
which  on  the  occasion  of  one  of  her  visits  to  Leicester 
Queen  Elizabeth  presented  to  the  hospital.  Many 
old  castles  have  relics  of  the  feast  to  show  visitors, 
and  others  no  doubt  could  produce  equally  interest- 
ing examples  of  the  coppersmiths’  or  the  founders’ 
art  were  they  to  search  the  vaults  and  cellars  where 
disused  metal-work  was  in  years  gone  by  stowed  away. 
Visitors  to  Warwick  Castle  are  familiar  with  “Guy’s 
punchbowl,”  the  remarkable  metal  caldron  which  is 
nearly  twice  the  size  of  that  attributed  to  the  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  for  it  weighs,  along  with  a fork  said 
to  have  been  used  to  handle  the  meat,  807  lb. 

Most  of  these  old  vessels  were  cast,  but  some 
copper-work  was  hammered  by  hand,  and  those 
which  have  been  preserved  to  us  testify  to  the 
brawny  arm  of  the  smith  and  the  strength  of  his 


164  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


blow  when  by  hammer  and  hand  he  wrought  them. 
Such  copper  caldrons  were  often  made  in  two  or 
more  parts,  and  having  been  shaped  on  the  block, 
were  afterwards  riveted  together.  It  is  puzzling  at 
times  to  understand  local  and  trade  terms  in  that 
they  frequently  differ  from  the  commonly  accepted 
names  of  cooking  vessels.  Thus,  these  wrought 
caldrons  or  pots  were  frequently  designated  tripod 
kettles.  A very  fine  example  of  such  a wrought 
copper  kettle  was  recovered  a short  time  ago  from 
Whittlesey  Mere  and  is  now  in  the  Peterborough 
Museum.  A century  or  more  ago  the  Mere  was 
famous  in  Huntingdonshire  and  many  water  parties 
were  held  there.  The  kettle  recently  found  is 
thought  to  have  been  a relic  of  those  events,  and 
to  have  been  used  on  the  margin  of  the  lake. 

The  fine  caldron  of  cast  brass  illustrated  in  Fig.  27 
was  found  during  excavations  in  Water  Lane,  in 
London.  It  is  peculiar  in  that  it  has  two-eared 
handles  and  projecting  feet.  It  is  very  substantial, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  the  early  metal 
caldrons,  several  of  which  have  been  found  in 
London.  Another  cooking  vessel,  smaller  in  size, 
having  a curved  handle  and  being  in  good  preser- 
vation, a domestic  relic  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
which  was  dug  up  in  Milton  Street,  Cripplegate,  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  28. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  baronial  halls, 
and  to  the  numerous  relics  which  have  been  lost 
to  futurity.  There  are,  however,  some  well-known 
castles  where,  although  the  kitchens  have  been 
replenished  from  time  to  time,  the  older  forms  of 


FIG.  25. — SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY  BRASS  PAN. 
FIG.  26. — BRASS  TRIPOD  POT. 


FIG.  27. — CALDRON  OF  CAST  BRASS. 

FIG.  28. — BRASS  COOKING  VESSEL  WITH  CURVED  HANDLE. 


165 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


167 


cooking  vessels  have  been  perpetuated.  Until  recent 
days  the  kitchen  arrangements  at  Windsor  Castle 
remained  much  as  they  had  been  for  many  years 
previous,  and  even  now  copper  and  brass  retain  a 
favoured  position  and  are  very  much  in  evidence. 
Windsor  has  been  the  scene  of  much  feasting,  and 
many  great  State  events  have  put  a strain  even 
upon  the  domestic  resources  of  that  famous  Royal 
residence. 

The  great  kitchen  of  the  castle  is  supplemented  by 
a vegetable  kitchen,  a green  kitchen,  and  a scullery, 
and  around  these  rooms  there  is  a bright  array  of 
copper  pans  and  cooking  utensils,  mostly  bearing  the 
monogram  of  George  IV,  for  it  was  in  his  reign  that 
many  new  culinary  appointments  were  added.  These 
vessels,  large  and  small,  were  in  constant  use  during 
the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria.  Her  late  Majesty  was 
averse  to  change.  In  her  days  oak  out  of  Windsor 
Forest  was  burned  in  the  grate,  and  the  spits  and 
roasting-jacks  and  other  kitchen  accessories  were  in 
keeping  with  the  copper  and  brass  pans  and  kettles. 
Great  changes  have  been  made  since  the  accession  of 
George  V,  for  Queen  Mary  supervises  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Royal  kitchens,  and  many  modern 
cooking  vessels  have  been  substituted  for  older 
ones. 

The  collector  of  copper  and  brass  culinary  utensils 
has  seldom  an  opportunity  of  adding  the  large 
bronze  caldrons  and  relics  of  Royal  kitchens  to  his 
collection.  He  has  to  be  content  with  exploring 
lesser  domains,  and  securing  wherever  possible  the 
smaller  cooking  vessels  of  days  gone  by.  These 


168  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


are  frequently  quite  as  interesting  as  those  of 
larger  size,  and  there  is  a wealth  of  copper  still 
lying  dormant  in  antique  shops,  and  in  some 
instances  in  the  scrap-heaps  of  the  old  metal 
dealer.  Without  going  any  further  back  the 
saucepans  of  the  seventeenth  century  well  reward 
the  discoverer  of  such  relics.  That  century  was  a 
time  when  pious  mottoes  were  carved  upon  the 
lintel  beam  and  when  old  coffers  and  other  pieces 
of  massive  oak  were  decorated  with  such  senti- 
ments. The  brassfounders  followed  suit  and  orna- 
mented pots  and  pans,  and  enriched  them  with 
mottoes  just  as  they  cast  such  inscriptions  on 
bells  and  mortars.  Two  very  interesting  seven- 
teenth-century vessels  are  illustrated  on  p.  165.  One 
of  these,  Fig.  25,  was  discovered  some  years  ago  in 
Fetter  Lane,  and  is  now  in  the  Guildhall  Museum. 
The  other,  Fig.  26,  is  a tripod  pot,  the  handle  of 
which  has  a loop  near  the  bowl.  It  is  probably 
of  early  seventeenth  or  late  sixteenth-century 
workmanship.  The  brass  skillet  of  seventeenth- 
century  make,  illustrated  in  Fig.  29,  may  be  seen 
by  the  curious  in  the  British  Museum.  There  is 
no  uncertainty  about  its  date,  for  it  is  marked 
1684,  and  along  the  handle  is  the  quaint  motto 
“ Pitty  the  Pore.”  Collectors  may  be  reminded  that 
inscriptions  are  sometimes  stamped  ; at  others  en- 
graved, and  they  are  frequently  met  with  on  quite 
unimportant  vessels.  The  metal  used  for  such 
utensils  was  chiefly  of  brass,  but  often  of  latten,  an 
alloy  in  which  there  was  an  admixture  of  zinc,  or 
of  tin  in  what  was  known  as  white  latten.  As  it 


FIG.  29. — SKILLET  (BRASS),  THE  HANDLE  OF  WHICH  IS  ENGRAVED  WITH  THE 
MOTTO  “ PITTY  THE  PORE.” 


FIGS.  30  AND  31. — BRONZE  COOKING  VESSELS,  ATTRIBUTED  TO  THE  BEGINNING 
OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

[In  the  British  Museum .) 


169 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


171 


has  been  stated  already,  brass  came  into  vogue  late 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  soon  became  popular 
for  kitchen  utensils ; latten,  however,  was  a favourite 
alloy  for  spoons  and  the  smaller  objects,  especially 
for  porringers  for  mulling  wine.  Concurrent  with 
the  use  of  copper  and  its  modern  alloys  bronze 
appears  to  have  been  used  in  this  country  even  as 
late  as  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  cooking  vessels  illustrated  in  Figs.  30  and  31 
being  bronze  of  this  late  type. 

The  skillet,  which  continued  a favourite  vessel, 
commonly  called  a saucepan,  originally  had  three 
short-curved  feet,  and  the  handle  was  curved,  too. 
It  was  a development  of  a still  earlier  cooking 
vessel  ; its  prototype  of  the  sixteenth  century  having 
a globular  body  with  short-curved  feet,  and  fre- 
quently two  handles. 

The  twentieth-century  collector,  accustomed  as  he 
is  to  machine-  and  factory-made  goods  of  uniform 
finish  and  of  regular  shapes,  is  apt  to  be  a little  bit 
disappointed  with  the  copper  curios  roughly  made 
and  badly  formed.  It  would  appear  as  if  most  of 
the  collectable  copper  goods  were  made  after  the 
days  when  the  old  guilds  so  carefully  controlled  the 
making  of  copper  and  latten  in  Lothbury.  When 
their  power  of  control  waned,  craftsmen  who  had 
been  employed  by  guild  members  worked  for  them- 
selves, and  there  was  but  little  supervision  over  the 
metal  wares  made  by  the  coppersmith,  who  was  often 
a retailer  of  his  own  wares.  When  the  hardware 
dealer  or  copper  man  became  an  established  trader 
in  the  eighteenth  century  he  would  employ  a 


172  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


journeyman  coppersmith  in  his  little  workshop,  who 
would  fashion  the  utensils  with  a hammer  on  a 
wooden  block,  and  afterwards  planish  them  by  hand 
as  he  thought  fit.  In  the  making  of  such  goods 
there  was  great  irregularity,  and  the  dealer  and  his 
customer,  too,  were  dependent  upon  the  whim  of  the 
craftsman.  That  was  before  the  days  of  machine- 
made  goods.  Instead  of  the  brass  or  copper  being 
pressed  and  stamped  by  machinery  and  carefully 
finished  the  utensils  were  made  in  a rough  and 
ready  way  on  the  wooden  block,  and  simply  ham- 
mered in  the  rounded  cavities  which  had  been 
made  in  it.  Saucepans,  stewpans,  and  jelly  moulds 
were  beaten  into  shape,  and  then  hollowed  and 
dished.  It  is  said  it  was  a healthful  trade,  for 
many  of  the  old  coppersmiths  had  passed  their 
threescore  years  and  ten  shaping  kettles  and 
deftly  fashioning  from  a sheet  of  brass  even  quite 
ornamental  domestic  articles  of  utility ; they  would 
decorate  by  hand  a brass  chestnut  roaster  with  no 
other  tools  but  a small  hammer  and  a punch,  and 
with  the  same  simple  instruments  they  would  work 
a fancy  pattern  on  the  lid  of  a warming-pan. 
Some  coppersmiths  won  fame  in  the  fashioning  of 
furnace-pans,  better  known  as  washing  coppers, 
and  others  would  undertake  the  roofing  of  houses 
and  churches.  One  notable  firm  in  London,  whose 
copper  saucepans  and  cooking-pots  had  been  sold  for 
a hundred  years  or  more,  achieved  the  zenith  of  their 
fame  when  they  produced  that  enormous  piece  of 
copper- work,  the  ball  and  cross  of  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral, 
which  is  referred  to  and  illustrated  in  another  chapter. 


FIGS.  32  AND  33. — COPPER  WATER  JUG  AND  WATER  POT. 


FIG.  34. — COPPER  WATER  JUG  AND  COVER. 
FIG.  35. — BRASS  TWO-HANDLED  WATER  VESSEL. 


173 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


175 


There  is  yet  another  reason  given  why  so  many  of 
the  old  copper  pots  and  pans  are  irregular  in  shape 
and  are  often  fitted  with  apparently  unsuitable 
handles.  It  is  that  most  of  these  old  vessels  at  one 
time  or  another  have  undergone  repairs,  and  were 
frequently  treated  by  unskilled  workmen.  Among 
the  street  cries  of  London  one  of  the  oldest  was  : 
“ Any  pots  or  pans  to  mend  ? ” The  travelling 
tinker  was  a repairing  coppersmith,  too,  and  much 
of  his  time  was  occupied  in  mending  the  copper  and 
brass  cooking  utensils  used  at  the  farmhouses  and  in 
the  villages  through  which  he  passed.  His  methods 
of  dealing  with  the  vessels  entrusted  to  him  for  repairs 
were  not  always  the  best,  as  museum  relics  testify. 

Drinking  cups,  tankards,  and  flagons  constitute 
another  very  important  section  of  collectable  curios. 
They  were,  however,  chiefly  made  of  pewter  in  the 
days  before  glass  and  earthenware  became  general. 
Some  were  undoubtedly  of  copper.  This  metal, 
however,  was  chiefly  used  for  large  jugs  in  which 
water  and  other  liquids  were  carried.  Water  vessels 
vary  in  shape,  although  certain  characteristics  are 
frequently  noticeable.  The  typical  English-made 
jug  and  water  vessel,  such  as  those  shown  in  Figs. 
32,  33)  34)  and  35,  are  very  graceful  in  shape,  the 
handles  being  light  and  very  suitable.  They  make 
remarkably  welcome  additions  to  a collection  of 
metal,  and  are  appropriate  ornaments  on  an  old  oak 
sideboard. 

The  Houseplace. 

It  is  not  a far  remove  from  the  kitchen  to  the 


176  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


houseplace,  and  it  is  there  that  some  of  the  more 
decorative  brasswork  of  eighteenth-century  workman- 
ship is  chiefly  to  be  found.  Just  as  copper  and  brass 
formed  a prominent  feature  in  the  equipment  of  the 
kitchen,  so  in  the  old  houseplace  they  were  considered 
the  best  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  polishing  of 
the  metal-work  throughout  the  house  in  the  good  old 
days  must  have  been  a considerable  item  in  the 
duties  of  domestic  servants,  but  no  doubt  it  well 
repaid  the  labour,  for  from  the  old  ornaments  and 
usable  curios  of  the  houseplace  which  have  come 
into  the  hands  of  collectors,  especially  when 
housed  in  a reconstructed  eighteenth-century  room, 
the  effect  is  excellent.  The  metal-work  of  the  best 
parlour  was  not  so  extensive,  although  there  were 
many  beautifully  polished  coal-vases  and  fender  frets. 
Indeed,  in  both  rooms  mentioned  the  chief  attraction 
would  appear  to  have  centred  on  the  fireplace. 

The  story  of  the  evolution  of  the  grate  and  the 
hearth  and  its  appointments  is  of  extreme  interest. 
The  grate  itself  was  at  times  ornate  with  polished 
brass  beads  and  canopies.  The  older  type  of  fire- 
place was  mostly  fitted  with  iron  appointments,  but 
even  when  andirons  were  upon  the  hearth  and  logs 
of  timber  crackled  as  they  blazed  up  the  wide  old 
chimney,  the  dogs  or  chief  ornaments  of  the  hearth 
were  often  of  brass  or  bronze.  When  hob-grates  and 
registers  came  in  fashion,  ormolu  and  brass  ornament 
contrasted  with  polished  steel.  A typical  parlour 
hob-grate  of  the  eighteenth  century  would  be  ornate 
with  brasses  on  the  hobs,  a pierced  brass  fender  on 
the  stone  slab,  and  a polished  brass  ashes  pan  in  front 


FIG.  36. — A FINELY-PIERCED  BRASS  TRIVET,  DATED  l668. 


FIG.  37. — BRASS-TOPPED  TRIVET,  WITH  ADDITIONAL  LEG  STAY. 
FIG.  38. — BRASS-TOPPED  TRIVET,  WITH  TURNED  WOOD  HANDLE. 


177 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


179 


of  the  bars  to  hide  the  cinders.  The  trivet  or 
revolving  stool,  small  or  large,  was  in  the  fender  or  on 
the  hearth,  and  massive  fire  brasses  (not  irons)  filled 
the  empty  spaces. 

The  brass  trivet,  revived  in  modern  times,  was 
originally  a three-legged  stool  made  of  metal,  on 
which  a kettle  or  similar  vessel  could  be  placed  near 
to  the  fire.  The  convenience  of  being  able  to  put  the 
trivet  stool  quite  close  up  to  the  bars  suggested  to 
the  maker  of  such  things  the  addition  of  hooks  by 
which  the  trivet  could  be  hung  upon  the  bar,  thereby 
bringing  it  nearer  to  the  heat.  In  later  years  the 
trivet  developed  a handle  for  the  convenience  of 
moving  it  about,  and  especially  of  hanging  it  upon 
the  bars,  and  in  the  latest  completed  form  with 
turned  wood  handle,  iron  legs,  and  brass  fretted  top, 
the  trivet  was  regarded  as  an  essential  accompani- 
ment to  the  fire-grate.  From  the  three-legged  stool 
with  hooks  or  handle  there  came  a minor  develop- 
ment in  the  form  of  a light  portable  trivet  without 
legs,  which  could  only  be  used  when  hung  on  the 
bars.  These  varieties  presented  the  worker  in  brass 
with  an  excellent  opportunity  of  showing  his  decora- 
tive skill,  and  brass  trivet  tops  soon  became  very 
ornamental.  Fig.  36  represents  a finely-pierced  brass 
trivet,  with  tall  legs  and  pointed  feet  and  a turned 
wood  handle.  On  the  top  of  a baluster-shaped 
device,  supported  by  dolphins,  Atlas  is  represented 
bearing  on  his  shoulders  the  globe.  The  date  of  the 
trivet  is  1668,  and  on  the  top  is  also  engraved  the 
owner’s  monogram.  Another  very  interesting 
example  comes  from  Derbyshire,  and  is  shown  in 


180  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Fig.  38.  Yet  another  example  is  given  in  Fig.  37, 
this  being  a more  elaborate  design.  In  the  centre 
of  the  plate  an  eagle  is  represented  with  out- 
stretched wings.  The  construction  of  this  trivet  is 
somewhat  unusual  in  that  it  is  strengthened  with 
a cross-bar  ; the  feet  are  of  spear-head  shape.  All 
three  examples  are  to  be  seen  at  South  Kensington. 

There  have  been  many  modern  replicas  of  the 
beautiful  old  brass  helmet-shaped  coal-boxes  so 
common  half  a century  ago.  The  earlier  types 
varied  somewhat  in  shape,  but  always  preserved 
their  helmet-like  form,  as  illustrated  in  the  example 
shown  in  Fig.  39.  In  the  days  when  these  coal- 
boxes  were  fashionable,  miniature  pipkins  were 
sold  for  drawing-room  use,  and  a little  later  oblong 
and  oval  boxes  of  polished  brass  and  copper  were 
in  common  use ; in  some  places  the  brass  log 
boxes  taking  their  place,  especially  where  wood 
was  plentiful. 

It  is  probable  no  domestic  utensil  or  appliance  has 
gained  greater  notoriety  than  the  copper  and  brass 
warming-pan,  which  so  long  held  an  honoured 
place  in  the  chimney  corner.  It  was  used  nightly 
in  winter  for  warming  beds  in  the  often  large  and 
chilly  rooms,  both  in  the  homes  of  the  wealthy  and 
of  the  middle  classes.  One  of  these  pans  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  23  on  the  wall  of  the  seventeenth- 
century  room  already  mentioned  as  being  on  view 
in  the  London  Museum.  Another  very  handsome 
warming-pan,  which  is  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  is  very  exceptional  in  style.  Many  of  the 
earlier  examples  are  dated,  and  sometimes  en- 


FIG.  39. — COPPER 


HELMET-SHAPED  COAL-BOX. 


181 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


183 


graved  or  embossed  with  pious  or  loyal  sentiments, 
as  was  the  custom  of  the  times.  The  Royal 
Albert  Memorial  Museum  at  Exeter  contains 
several  interesting  warming-pans  ; one,  which  is 
dated  on  the  lid  1622,  is  engraved  : “ I.R.  GOD 
SAVE  KING  JAMES”;  another,  with  an  iron  handle, 
is  of  still  earlier  date,  being  stamped  1616  on 
the  lid. 

Brass  foot-warmers  were  at  one  time  in  regular 
use ; a very  fine  example,  shown  in  Fig.  40,  is  of 
octagonal  shape,  covered  with  repoussd  decoration, 
and  fitted  with  a folding  bail  handle,  facilitating  its 
removal  from  place  to  place.  There  have  been  many 
copper  foot-warmers,  carriage  warmers,  and  the  like 
used  in  days  before  modern  heating  arrangements 
were  known.  Some  years  ago  little  copper  muff- 
warmers  were  sold  in  the  shops ; but  they  were  of 
no  great  novelty,  for  as  far  back  as  the  seventeenth 
century  what  were  known  as  warming  boxes  were 
made  for  keeping  the  hands  warm  on  journeys  when 
travelling  by  the  very  cold  and  draughty  stage 
coaches.  These  curious  little  boxes  of  brass  or 
copper  were  heated  with  a removable  mass  of  iron, 
which  could  be  lifted  out  of  the  box,  which  hinged 
in  the  centre,  by  means  of  an  iron  hook  ; just  in  the 
same  way  the  old  box  irons  were  operated.  In  Figs. 
41  and  42  one  of  these  early  boxes,  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  Guildhall  Museum,  is  illustrated.  Thus 
in  olden  time  the  comfort  of  travellers  was  attained. 
The  old  inns  were  welcome  retreats  after  a stormy 
journey  by  road,  and  the  older  inns  of  the  coaching 
days  often  contain  many  interesting  relics  of  the 


184  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


days  when  the  copper  and  brass  objects  we  now  call 
curious  and  old  were  new.  Those  objects  referred  to 
in  the  previous  paragraphs  by  no  means  exhaust  the 
list  of  houseplace  curios  in  metal,  but  they  may  serve 
to  point  out  the  great  interest  which  attaches  to  even 
common  objects  of  everyday  use  when  a few  years 
have  passed  by  and  changes  have  been  brought  about 
in  everyday  usages. 

Chimney  and  other  Ornaments. 

As  it  has  been  intimated  already,  the  fireplace  was 
a centre  of  attraction  in  all  old  houses.  It  was  cus- 
tomary on  a winter’s  night  to  draw  up  close  to  the 
fire,  and  in  so  doing  it  was  only  natural  that  the 
chimney  piece  and  those  objects  which  rested  thereon 
would  be  constantly  looked  at.  This  probably  gave 
makers  the  cue  when  designing  ornamental  brass- 
work  which  could  be  used  as  household  decoration. 
The  ornaments  of  those  days  were  substantial,  and 
the  chimney  ornaments  solid  and  lasting.  It  was  a 
common  thing  to  see  a row  of  brass  figures  or  pairs 
of  brass  ornaments  on  the  chimney-piece.  Such 
designs  as  those  shown  in  Figs.  43  and  44  were 
popular.  Our  illustrations  represent  one  only  of 
each  fashion  ; the  pairs,  however,  were  usually  de- 
signed opposite  hands,  looking  to  right  and  left. 
Such  ornaments  were  seen  on  the  kitchen  mantel- 
pieces of  the  well-to-do  and  on  the  hob-grates  of  the 
houseplaces  of  the  middle  classes.  This  was  the 
prevailing  custom  from  fifty  to  seventy  years  ago, 
and  still  earlier  similar  ornaments,  cruder  in  design, 
evidently  modelled  after  the  style  of  the  Bow  pottery 


FIG.  40. — BRASS  FOOT-WARMER  WITH  BAIL  HANDLE. 
{In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


FIGS.  41  AND  42.— EARLY  BRASS  OR  BRONZE  HAND-WARMER,  SHOWN 
OPEN  AND  CLOSED. 

{In  the  Guildhall  Museum.) 


185 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS  187 

figures,  were  in  use.  In  Lancashire  and  in  the 
manufacturing  districts  of  the  Black  Country  brass 
ornaments  of  similar  and  more  modern  types  have 
always  been  favoured,  and  they  are  still  sold  as 
ornaments  to  well-to-do  artisans  and  mechanics. 
The  modern  castings  are  rougher  and  not  so  decora- 
tive or  beautifully  designed  as  the  tooled  castings  of 
earlier  days.  The  peacock  was  a favourite  bird  and 
shared  with  the  pheasant  popularity.  These  designs 
are  easily  recognizable  among  the  genuine  antiques. 
There  were  larger  animals,  too,  such  as  the  horse,  an 
example  of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  45.  This  favourite 
beast  of  burden  was  oftentimes  represented  as  a dray 
horse  ; in  more  sporting  circles  as  a hack  or  a hunter. 
In  agricultural  districts  the  wagoner,  the  huntsman, 
and  dogs  and  hounds  were  chiefly  favoured.  They 
were  generally  set  on  a base  or  plinth,  an  exception- 
ally good  country  brass  of  the  earlier  type  repre- 
senting a shepherd  with  his  typical  crook.  Little 
statuettes  represented  politicians  and  historical  and 
even  allegorical  figures.  Among  the  portrait  brasses 
Napoleon  was  a favourite  subject  in  the  days  when 
his  name  was  familiar  in  every  household.  Izaac 
Walton,  the  exponent  of  the  gentle  art,  was  often 
modelled  in  brass,  and  even  Robinson  Crusoe  and 
his  man  Friday  formed  the  subject  of  a rare  group. 
The  Continents  of  America,  Africa,  and  Asia  are  rare 
and  interesting  allegorical  groups.  Other  brasses 
show  traces  of  Chippendale  influence,  especially  those 
in  miniature  which  represent  familiar  household 
objects,  among  which  are  wonderful  little  models  of 
circular  tables  and  of  the  oval  loo  tables,  like  those 

10 


188  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


then  seen  in  the  best  parlour.  There  are  also  minia- 
ture brass  trivets  and  stools  and  models  of  grandfather 
chairs. 

Brass  ornaments  such  as  those  described  are  not 
altogether  confined  to  chimney  ornaments,  for  on  a 
larger  scale  they  were  frequently  used  on  the  old  hob- 
grates.  the  polished  brass  or  copper  contrasting  with 
the  shining  blacklead  put  on  with  plenty  of  elbow 
grease.  They  were  used,  too,  as  door  porters  and 
also  as  sideboard  ornaments.  The  ornaments  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century  in  metal  were,  however, 
almost  entirely  associated  with  utilitarian  purposes, 
the  artist  decorating  the  commoner  objects,  giving 
special  attention  to  the  repouss^  work  and  engraving 
on  those  portions  which  would  be  in  view  when  the 
dustpan,  warming-pan,  hearth  brush,  or  other  object 
was  hung  up. 

Classified  Arrangement. 

In  addition  to  those  articles  mentioned  in  the  fore- 
going paragraphs  there  are  many  domestic  utensils 
highly  decorative,  such  as  candlesticks  and  lighting 
apparatus,  referred  to  in  other  chapters  in  this  volume. 
These  all  come  under  the  special  notice  of  the  col- 
lector of  copper  and  brasswork  who  turns  his  atten- 
tion to  domestic  antiques.  Such  collectable  objects 
as  already  suggested  should  be  arranged  in  a room 
furnished  in  similar  style  to  that  prevailing  at  a time 
when  these  metal  curios  were  in  daily  use.  If  such 
a room  is  not  available  an  alternative  method  is  to 
arrange  the  domestic  curios  so  that  by  comparison 
the  progress  made  by  makers  as  each  succeeding 


FIGS.  43  AND  44. — BRASS  CHIMNEY  ORNAMENTS  (ONE  EACH  OF  PAIRS). 


F!G.  45. — BRASS  HORSE,  A CHIMNEY  OR  HOB-GRATE  ORNAMENT. 


189 


DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 


191 


generation  came  and  went  can  be  seen  and  appre- 
ciated. Incidentally  that  method  is  very  interesting 
in  that  it  reveals  the  periods  at  which  art  was  upper- 
most, and  indicates  those  times  when  the  utility  of 
domestic  copper  and  brass  was  in  the  ascendant 
rather  than  their  ornate  appearance.  Popular  taste 
was  followed  by  the  maker  at  all  times,  and  the  more 
progressive  manufacturers  were  ever  on  the  look-out 
for  some  slight  improvement  either  in  design  or 
decoration — seldom,  however,  making  any  radical 
change — so  that  the  progress  in  metal-work  was  one 
of  development  slowly  unfolded. 


IX 


CANDLESTICKS 
AND  LAMPS 


CHAPTER  IX 

CANDLESTICKS  AND  LAMPS 

Fire-making  apparatus — Candles  and  candlesticks — Oil  lamps  and 
lanterns. 


Artificial  light  and  heat  were  among  the  first 
scientific  discoveries  of  primeval  man.  To  harness 
the  forces  of  Nature  was  undoubtedly  a great 
achievement,  and  at  first  would  be  viewed  with 
alarm.  The  fire  which  had  been  kindled  from 
natural  causes  would  be  looked  upon  with  awe  by 
the  cave  men  or  the  dwellers  in  the  forest.  When 
they  saw  it  dying  down  they  would  very  naturally 
make  some  effort  to  keep  the  fire  burning  by  adding 
fresh  fuel.  The  time  would  come,  however,  when 
lighting  a fire  by  artificial  means  would  be  resorted 
to ; and  the  methods  adopted  in  those  far-off 
days  involved  the  use  of  primitive  contrivances, 
some  of  which  are  described  on  the  next  page. 
The  fire  burning  under  the  camp  kettle  would  in 
course  of  time  suggest  a flaming  torch,  which  could 
be  carried  about  at  will ; and  from  the  torch,  which 
burned  all  too  quickly,  came  the  discovery  of  oil 

lamps  and  the  candle.  At  first  this  was  only  a rush- 

195 


196  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


light,  used  side  by  side  with  the  cresset  torch  ; and 
then  in  later  days  came  lamps  and  lanterns. 

Fire-making  Apparatus. 

The  collector  of  copper  and  brass  looks  with  regret 
on  the  early  fire-making  apparatus  in  that  iron  was 
the  chief  metal  employed.  Nevertheless  there  are 
some  objects  associated  with  fire-making  manufac- 
tured in  brass.  There  are  some  well-known  collectors 
who  have  specialized  on  fire-making  appliances  and 
early  lamps.  Among  fire-making  appliances  are 
those  of  the  percussion  type,  commencing  with  iron 
pyrites,  flint,  steel,  and  tinder.  Some  of  the  earlier 
tinder  boxes  were  made  of  brass,  although  the 
majority  were  of  wood  and  tin  ; many  of  the  pistol- 
action  tinder  boxes  which  immediately  followed  the 
earlier  form  were  furnished  with  stands  and  candle- 
sockets,  being  used  for  the  purpose  of  lighting  an 
early  candle.  Some  of  the  brass  candle-stands  and 
candle-sockets  are  beautifully  engraved,  and  many  of 
the  contrivances  which  were  fired  by  the  priming  of 
gunpowder,  the  flash  igniting  the  tinder,  are  highly 
ornamental.  That  method,  of  course,  marked  an 
advance.  There  are  pistol-action  tinder  boxes  from 
Japan,  highly  ornamental,  the  cases  being  pierced  and 
in  some  instances  decorated  with  raised  silver  and 
copper  relief.  From  China  and  Central  Asia  come 
tinder  pouches,  many  of  them  having  decorative  brass 
mounts,  some  being  gilt  on  copper.  Tinder  was  often 
carried  about  in  tubes  of  brass  and  copper,  some  of 
the  best  examples  being  very  elaborately  engraved. 
In  some  small  compartments  are  found  ; these  were 


197 


FIG.  46— A TWO-TUBE  CANDLE  MOULD.  FIG.  47.— TWO  TYPES  OF  EARLY  PRICKET  CANDLESTICKS. 


CANDLESTICKS  AND  LAMPS 


199 


intended  for  the  flint  and  steel.  A later  type  of 
mechanical  fire-making  appliance,  introduced  by 
Richard  Lorentz,  in  1807,  took  the  form  of  a 
patented  compression  tube  or  fire  syringe,  the  piston 
of  which  was  of  brass.  Chemical  methods  of  lighting 
fires  and  striking  lights  have  been  tried  with  more  or 
less  success,  and  among  the  collectable  curios  are 
relics  of  these  early  attempts  to  produce  fire  and  light 
by  scientific  methods.  The  collector,  while  welcoming 
every  curious  object,  has  generally  to  rely  upon  the 
objects  which  were  in  common  use  and  made  in 
larger  quantities.  Of  these  commonly  used  appli- 
ances, however,  there  are  many  varieties,  and  of  the 
more  perfected  forms  of  lighting  requisites  there  is 
an  abundant  choice. 

Candles  and  Candlesticks. 

Many  are  the  legends  and  stories  of  the  days  when 
the  flickering  light  of  a candle  threw  shadows  across 
the  ceiling  and  partly  lighted  and  partly  obscured  the 
table  and  floor.  Ghostly,  too,  they  seemed  as  the 
embers  of  the  fire  died  on  the  hearth.  The  provision 
of  artificial  light  for  use  during  the  long  winter  even- 
ings has  always  been  one  of  the  domestic  cares,  and 
the  women  of  the  household  were  in  early  days 
mindful  of  the  coming  winter  during  the  summer  and 
autumn  months.  Among  their  domestic  duties  was 
that  of  gathering  and  drying  rushes  and  dipping  them 
in  fat.  The  primitive  rushlights  gave  an  uncertain 
glimmer,  and  the  moulding  of  candles  with  cotton 
wicks  would  be  welcomed  as  an  advance.  Candles 
were  home-made  until  comparatively  modern  times, 


200  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


and  the  candle  mould  was  an  essential  in  every 
household.  It  was  frequently  of  brass,  and  varied  in 
size  and  in  the  number  of  moulds,  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  4 6 having  only  two  tubes.  While  the  custom  of 
making  candles  at  home  continued  long  in  country 
districts,  in  towns  candle-making  became  a trade, 
and,  as  was  the  custom  in  those  days,  the  moulders 
of  candles  assembled  together  in  certain  well-known 
thoroughfares.  In  London,  Candlewick  Street,  the 
name  of  which  has  since  been  corrupted  into  Cannon 
Street,  was  their  rendezvous. 

The  store  of  candles  for  immediate  use  was  kept 
close  at  hand  in  the  candle  box,  placed  against  the 
wall  in  some  convenient  position.  The  boxes  were 
of  wood  and  japanned  tin  ; others  were  of  brass, 
some  being  very  ornamental  and  covered  over  with 
engravings.  Such  candle  boxes  are  to  be  found  in 
the  curio  shops  ; several  fine  examples  may  frequently 
be  seen  near  St.  James’s  Park  Station  in  London, 
where  there  are  several  curio  dealers  who  specialize  on 
old  copper  and  brass,  the  neighbourhood  being  quite 
a happy  hunting  ground  for  the  collector  of  metal. 

The  evolution  of  the  candlestick  was  slow  at  first. 
The  old  rushlight-holders  were  made  by  the  country 
smith,  and  very  clumsy  they  were  on  their  heavy 
wooden  stands.  The  first  idea  seems  to  have  been 
to  stick  the  candle  on  a spike,  oftentimes  such  spikes 
being  placed  conveniently  on  the  wall.  Then  came 
the  “ sticks  ” on  stands  which  could  be  moved  about 
the  room,  in  some  cases  with  a sliding  holder,  the 
height  of  which  could  be  regulated.  Gradually, 
however,  the  candlestick  for  table  use  and  the  candle- 


201 


FIG.  48. — CANDELABRUM  OF  EARLY  TYPE  (CENTRAL  FIGURE),  AND  TWO  OLD  OIL  LAMPS. 

{In  Washington  Museum.) 


CANDLESTICKS  AND  LAMPS 


203 


stick  with  the  dished  base,  which  became  common  as 
the  type  of  the  chamber  candlestick,  came  into  being. 
With  the  progress  made  and  the  general  acceptance 
of  the  two  types,  the  pillar  candlestick  and  the 
chamber  candlestick,  the  artist  in  metal  began  to 
turn  his  attention  to  perfecting  their  forms  and 
decorating  them. 

Many  remarkable  candlesticks  in  bronze  are  met 
with  among  ecclesiastical  brasses,  some  of  which  are 
referred  to  in  Chapter  VII.  Of  the  domestic  candle- 
sticks there  are  many  early  examples,  some  with 
beautifully  twisted  columns  and  later  fluted  examples. 
The  pricket  candlestick — that  is,  a candlestick  with  a 
spike  on  which  a candle  was  firmly  placed — eventually 
gave  way  to  the  more  convenient  socket,  and  a flange 
at  the  top  of  the  column  held  any  candle  grease  which 
might  run  down  the  sides  of  the  candle.  The  pricket 
candlesticks  of  early  twelfth-century  make  illustrated 
in  Fig.  47  may  be  referred  to  as  examples  of  the 
pricket  form,  their  chief  attractions  being  found  in 
the  richly  enamelled  decoration.  In  Fig.  48  we  are 
able  to  illustrate  a very  interesting  candelabrum  now 
in  the  National  Museum  at  Washington  City.  It  is 
made  up  literally  of  two  candlesticks  attached  to  a 
very  simple  pillar  bracket  on  which  they  slide  up 
and  down,  the  addition  of  a metal  reflector  suggesting 
later  developments  in  candlesticks  and  lamps.  In 
the  later  days  both  brass  and  silver  candlesticks, 
especially  the  tall  lights  used  on  mantelpiece  or  on 
sideboard,  were  ornamented  in  keeping  with  the  plate 
of  the  period,  and  were  eventually  classed  among  the 
more  decorative  appointments  of  the  home. 


204  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


When  candles  were  made  of  tallow  the  wicks 
burned  black  and  charred  and  a constant  snuffing 
was  necessary.  This  brought  about  the  use  of 
snuffers  of  polished  steel  and  of  brass,  and  a little 
later  of  snuffer  trays,  the  snuffers  and  their  accompany- 
ing  trays  forming  a most  interesting  addition  to  the 
collection  of  metal.  Candlesticks  are  still  used,  but 
the  candles  are  of  superior  quality  and  burn  steady 
and  bright.  Some  are  very  decorative,  too,  especially 
the  painted  candlesticks  which  with  their  ornamental 
shades  are  attached  to  pianos,  and  are  used  as  wall 
lights  or  as  additional  lights  upon  the  table.  The 
days  of  brass  candlesticks,  snuffers,  and  trays  have, 
however,  long  been  numbered,  and  most  of  these 
relics  of  old-world  lights  have  passed  into  the  region 
of  curios.  Here  and  there  they  may  be  seen  in  their 
once  accustomed  place,  but  more  as  ornament  than 
for  actual  use.  In  a well-known  hotel,  at  one  time 
an  old  coaching  house  famous  for  its  copper  and 
brass  wares,  the  candlesticks  in  those  early  days  a 
necessity  are  now  placed  in  pairs  on  the  bedroom 
mantelpieces  as  mementoes  of  the  past.  They  are 
not  intended  for  use,  for  the  electric  switch  is  at  hand, 
and  the  newer  light  has  taken  the  place  of  the  wax 
candle  (see  Fig.  49). 

The  lines  which  some  years  ago  were  printed  in 
connection  with  a concert  given  in  aid  of  the  Glasgow 
Candlemakers  and  Tallow  workers  are  appropriate  : 

£ ‘ The  light  of  other  days  is  faded, 

The  reign  of  tallow’s  past ; 

Magnesium  and  the  limelight 
Have  vanquished  ‘ dips  5 at  last. 


205 


FIG.  49.— GROUP  OF  RARE  CANDLESTICKS,  ALMS-DISH,  AND  EWERS. 
{In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum .) 


CANDLESTICKS  AND  LAMPS 


207 


And  the  old  lamplighter,  too, 

Must  shortly  disappear, 

Making  way  for  electric  light, 

With  its  garish  flash  so  * queer.’  ” 

Oil  Lamps  and  Lanterns. 

Much  might  be  written  of  oil  lamps  and  lanterns, 
of  which  there  are  many  interesting  curios.  They 
are  varied,  too,  for  they  cover  a large  field  reaching 
from  almost  prehistoric  times  to  the  present  day. 
Many  lamps  of  metal  and  bronze  have  survived  and 
are  found  in  our  museums  side  by  side  with  the  still 
earlier  examples  of  terra-cotta  and  crude  pottery. 
There  is  a very  interesting  collection  of  early  lamps 
in  the  Guildhall  Museum,  one  of  the  most  attractive 
examples  being  a Roman  lamp  of  bronze,  a portion 
of  the  central  oil  space  being  covered.  The  bronze 
lamp  illustrated  in  Fig.  50  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
London  Museum,  is  claimed  by  the  authorities  to  be 
unique  in  London  finds,  and  is  probably  the  finest 
example  of  a Roman  lamp  discovered  in  England. 
The  collector  finds  his  most  interesting  examples  in 
lamps  which  have  been  made  in  this  country  the  out- 
come of  the  candle  and  of  the  candle  lamp  which 
was  gradually  evolved.  Many  of  these  early  candle 
lamps  were  adaptations  of  old  candlesticks  ; it  would 
appear  that  the  idea  of  enclosing  a candle  in  a horn 
lantern  and  thereby  securing  greater  steadiness  on 
account  of  its  being  protected  from  the  wind  and 
draughts,  which  had  already  been  adopted,  suggested 
a glass  cup  or  protection  to  the  candle  on  the  table. 
It  is  quite  likely  that  the  first  experiments  were 
made  with  a broken  cup  of  porcelain  with  the  bottom 


208  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


knocked  out,  for  the  earliest  examples  seem  to  have 
taken  that  form,  the  cup-like  vessels  being  gradually 
confined  more  and  more  at  the  top  and  the  bottom. 
The  idea  of  a candle-clock  occurred  to  seventeenth- 
century  candlestick  makers,  who  marked  the  edges 
of  the  lamp  on  the  framework  so  that  as  the  candles 
burned  low  they  marked  the  hours.  The  burning 
would  be  more  or  less  irregular,  but  the  marks  on  the 
candle-clocks  would  be  some  guide,  and  served  their 
purpose  in  days  when  the  time  of  day  was  of  less 
moment  than  it  is  now. 

Oil,  which  had  early  been  the  chief  lighting  medium, 
was  once  more  in  the  ascendant  when  in  the 
eighteenth  century  oil  lamps  gradually  took  the 
place  of  candles.  Fig.  48  represents  a handsome 
pair  of  old  oil  lamps,  their  beautifully  shaped  vase 
containers  being  reminiscent  of  the  urns  and  vases 
at  that  time  ornamenting  the  mahogany  sideboard. 
It  is  said  that  many  such  lamps  were  made  in 
England  and  sent  over  to  America  before  the  War 
of  Independence,  and  that  in  the  homesteads  of  the 
old  plantations  such  relics  have  been  treasured. 
The  examples  shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations are  now  in  the  United  States  National 
Museum  at  Washington. 

In  the  days  when  the  watchman  called  the  time  of 
the  night  street-lighting  was  unknown.  Lanterns 
were  carried  in  the  hand  and  the  links-boys  were  in 
attendance. 

In  Fig  51  is  shown  a brass  lantern  (open  and 
closed)  which  is  now  the  property  of  the  Sunderland 
Public  Libraries  and  Art  Gallery  Committee,  a very 


209 


FIG.  50. — EARLY  BRONZE  LAMP. 

[The  London  Museum,  Stafford  House.) 


CANDLESTICKS  AND  LAMPS 


211 


interesting  specimen  of  an  eighteenth-century  col- 
lapsible lantern  of  brass  and  horn.  It  measures 
6\  in.  high  and  is  3f  in.  square.  Such  lanterns  were 
very  common  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  indeed 
in  still  more  recent  times  in  country  places  where 
they  were  very  necessary  before  country  roads  were 
improved  and  rural  thoroughfares  lighted. 

We  must,  however,  fain  pass  over  street-lighting 
for  the  lanterns  which  have  been  copied  so  many  times 
in  more  recent  days.  Apropos  of  lanterns  of  copper 
carried  by  the  wary  traveller  and  of  the  copper 
lightning  conductor  on  the  church  steeple,  an  indis- 
pensable feature  still,  the  following  lines  are  quoted : 

“ In  the  olden  time,  along  the  street, 

A glimmering  lantern  led  the  feet 
When  on  a midnight  stroll  ; 

But  now  we  catch,  when  night  is  night, 

A piece  of  lightning  from  the  sky 
And  stick  it  on  a pole.” 


213 


FIG.  51.— OLD  BRASS  LANTERN. 


X 


BELLS  AND 

BELL-METAL 

CASTINGS 


11 


CHAPTER  X 

BELLS  AND  BELL-METAL  CASTINGS 

The  founders’  secrets — Great  bells  of  historic  fame — The  uses  of  bells — 
Old  mortars. 


The  metal  of  which  bells  are  made  differs  only 
from  that  used  for  other  copper  wares  in  its  alloy. 
The  ancients,  however,  made  many  mysteries  about 
the  constituents  of  the  metal  by  which  they  were  able 
to  produce  such  beautiful  notes  and  musical  sounds. 
The  modern  bellfounder  uses  about  75  parts  of 
copper  and  25  parts  of  tin,  varying  it  sometimes 
by  a mixture  of  zinc  and  lead,  and  in  that  he  differs 
little  from  the  bellfounder  of  old,  except  that  the 
older  craftsman  made  a secret  of  his  alloy  and  some- 
times added  a small  quantity  of  other  metals.  The 
theory  is  that  a large  percentage  of  copper  gives 
a deep  tone,  whereas  the  greater  addition  of  zinc 
and  tin  gives  a sharper  ring. 

The  Founders’  Secrets. 

A knowledge  of  metals  and  of  their  qualities  is  a 
desirable  accomplishment  which  all  metal-workers 
and  founders  should  possess,  and  it  was  doubtless 

317 


218  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


because  some  of  the  early  bellfounders  intuitively,  or 
as  the  result  of  accidental  experiment,  discovered  the 
true  properties  of  the  alloys  they  used  that  they  were 
able  to  excel  in  the  craft.  There  are  secrets  asso- 
ciated with  the  mixing  of  the  metal,  too,  especially  that 
of  heating  the  molten  metal  to  the  correct  tempera- 
ture at  the  most  critical  moment  of  running  it  into  the 
mould.  Much  depends  also  upon  tuning  the  bells 
by  turning  and  reducing  their  thicknesses  at  the  right 
place  in  the  bell’s  cone.  The  accuracy  of  such  details 
is  essential,  otherwise  those  mellow  sounds  for  which 
many  of  the  old  bells  are  noted  would  be  absent.  It 
is  true  that  the  rich  mellowness  and  musical  notes 
so  noticeable  in  some  peals  are  due  to  some  extent  to 
age,  the  exact  influence  of  which  is  not  fully  under- 
stood. The  bellfounder  has  always  regarded  his 
work  from  a lofty  standard,  and  has  recorded  the 
accomplishment  of  any  great  work  by  the  inscrip- 
tions he  has  caused  to  be  cast  upon  the  surface  of  the 
bell.  Such  data  is  often  accompanied  by  the  name 
and  trademark  of  the  founder,  the  Bellfounders’ 
arms  being  frequently  added.  Sometimes  such 
inscriptions  are  dated ; at  others  the  lettering  is 
sufficient  to  denote  the  date  of  the  work. 

The  making  of  great  bells  was  always  regarded  as 
an  event  of  some  importance.  Most  of  those  which 
have  obtained  historic  fame  have  either  been 
associated  with  some  public  use  or  have  been  cast 
for  ecclesiastical  purposes.  Such  events  were  often 
attended  by  kings  and  queens  and  great  ecclesiastics, 
who  threw  into  the  melting-pot  contributions  of 
silver  and  gold,  inscriptions  upon  the  bells  them- 


BELLS  AND  BELL-METAL  CASTINGS  219 


selves  often  recording  the  special  object  of  their 
manufacture. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  casting  bells  a 
distance  away  from  the  tower  where  they  were  to  be 
hung  often  induced  the  founders  to  cast  them  on  the 
spot ; indeed,  as  late  as  1762  the  clock  bell  of 
Canterbury  was  recast  in  the  Cathedral  yard. 

Great  Bells  of  Historic  Fame. 

There  are  many  great  bells  of  historic  fame,  and 
others  which  have  gained  notoriety  from  their  great 
size.  The  claim  to  the  possession  of  the  largest  bell 
was  formerly  made  by  the  Chinese,  but  the  palm  is 
usually  accorded  to  the  Great  Bell  of  Moscow,  which 
measures  19  ft.  in  height  and  64  ft.  in  circum- 
ference. In  our  own  country  there  are  the  Great 
Bell  of  St.  Paul’s,  weighing  five  tons  ; “ Great  Tom” 
of  Lincoln,  of  similar  weight;  “Peter”  of  York, 
weighing  ten  tons  ; and  “ Big  Ben  ” of  Westminster, 
scaling  fourteen  tons. 

Some  old  churches  and  cathedrals  are  noted  more 
for  their  beautiful  chimes  than  for  the  size  and  weight 
of  their  larger  bells.  At  Mechlin  there  are  forty-four 
bells  in  the  carillon,  and  in  Antwerp  Cathedral  the 
chimes  are  played  on  sixty-five  bells,  the  oldest  in 
the  set,  named  “ Horrida,”  being  dated  1316,  but  the 
bell  which  is  said  to  be  the  best  loved  of  all  by  the 
ringers  is  stamped  “ Carolas,”  having  been  given  by 
Charles  V. 

There  are  bells  of  lesser  size  which  have  gained 
popularity,  some  from  their  former  associations ; 
others,  perhaps,  more  so  because  of  their  present 


220  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


location  or  ownership.  Sometimes  bells  have  been 
removed  from  old  churches  and  after  having  changed 
hands  several  times  have  found  a resting-place  in  the 
possession  of  laymen  ; often  in  museums,  it  is  true, 
but  not  always  so  : as  an  instance  there  is  the  fine 
old  bell  in  the  possession  of  the  Grocers’  Company, 
cast  in  1463  for  the  Church  of  All  Hallows,  Staining, 
where  it  hung  for  many  years.  The  bell  illustrated 
in  Fig.  52,  now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 
is  of  more  recent  date,  having  been  cast  in  Exeter  in 
1670  by  John  Pennington. 

Bells  have  frequently  been  brought  to  this  country 
as  trophies  of  war.  At  the  Tower  there  are  several 
fine  examples  of  Eastern  workmanship,  and  there 
are  others  now  in  the  United  Service  Museum  at 
Whitehall. 

The  Uses  of  Bells. 

The  older  bells  have  seen  varied  service ; they 
have  been  hung  in  church  towers  and  in  public 
places ; they  have  sounded  the  note  of  alarm,  and 
given  the  signal  for  historic  assemblies  ; they  have 
rung  the  death-knell  of  illustrious  persons,  and  in 
rural  England  have  summoned  many  generations  of 
worshippers  to  Divine  Service. 

The  bells,  the  loud  clanging  of  which  can  be  heard 
afar,  are,  however,  the  outcome  of  a gradual  process 
of  development.  The  evolution  from  the  handbell 
to  the  turret  bell  was  doubtless  slow. 

The  simple  handbell  in  its  early  stages  was  only  a 
slight  advance  beyond  the  bells  hung  round  the 
necks  of  the  leaders  of  the  flock,  which  were  made  by 


BELLS  AND  BELL-METAL  CASTINGS  221 


the  village  smith.  Such  primitive,  and  not  always 
musical,  bells  were  used  from  the  earliest  times  to 
summon  servants  and  workers  in  the  field  and 
tenderers  of  the  flock.  The  practice  dates  from 
Biblical  days,  for  it  was  an  early  Eastern  custom  for 
sheiks  and  patriarchs  from  their  tent  doors  to 
summon  their  followers,  or  give  the  danger  signal,  by 
means  of  a bell. 

Bible  records  tell  of  bells  of  gold  suspended  from 
the  robes  of  priests,  and  of  their  use  in  temple 
worship.  From  that  time  onward  they  have  been 
associated  with  religious  ceremonials.  In  later  times 
the  early  Christians  employed  bells  of  copper  and 
brass  and  consecrated  them  to  their  use.  Thus 
musical  peals,  rung  collectively  or  individually,  have 
sounded  for  all  kinds  of  sacred  rites.  The  bell — a 
mere  handbell — was  soon  fixed  over  a doorway,  or 
in  some  convenient  place  where  it  could  with  greater 
ease  be  rung  by  a cord.  Then  came  the  suggestion 
of  larger  bells,  afterwards  covered  over,  and  finally 
hung  in  steeple  or  tower,  like  the  campanile  (a  tower 
separated  from  the  church)  so  often  met  with  in  Italy. 

The  church  bell  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  here 
by  Paulinus,  the  Bishop  of  Mona,  in  A.D.  400.  The 
next  record  of  importance  is  the  historical  account  of 
the  Venerable  Bede,  who  describes  bells  hung  in  towers 
— that  was  in  A.D.  670.  Some  two  hundred  years 
after  Bede’s  days  a peal  was  rung  for  the  first  time  in 
England,  in  the  Abbey  of  Crowland.  The  pioneers 
of  bell-ringing  upon  bells  tuned  in  harmony  were  the 
ringers  who  produced  such  charming  results  with  the 
bells  of  King’s  College,  Cambridge. 


222  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


The  bells  of  churches  were  rung  for  ecclesiastical 
and  for  national  and  parochial  purposes.  There  was 
the  vesper  bell  for  evensong,  and  there  was  the 
curfew  bell  which  rang  in  obedience  to  the  “ lights 
out”  enactments  of  Norman  days  (see  Couvre  de 
feu,  p.  1 13). 

Of  the  minor  uses  of  bells  there  are  many.  In 
Tudor  days  small  bells  were  familiar  objects  in 
hunting.  They  formed  part  of  the  equipment  of  the 
hawk  or  falcon.  Of  these  we  read  in  Shakespeare’s 
works — of  the  “ ’larum  bell  and  of  sweet  bells  jangled 
out  of  tune.”  In  Othello  there  is  a record  of  the 
“ snorting  citizen  with  his  bell.” 

Bellmen  were  the  heralds  of  news  in  country  towns, 
and  the  importance  of  their  office  was  made  clear  by 
the  “ Oyez ! Oyez  ! ” by  which  they  prefixed  their 
tale.  The  ancient  watchman  clanged  his  bell  and 
the  light  in  the  lantern  slung  at  his  waist  flickered  as 
he  sounded  the  call.  This  is  mentioned  in  an  old 
ballad,  the  first  verse  of  which  reads  : 

“Time,  master,  calls  your  bellman  to  his  task, 

To  see  your  doors  and  windows  are  all  fast.” 

Numerous  examples  of  curious  bells  are  to  be  seen 
in  our  museums.  In  the  Welsh  Museum  at  Cardiff 
there  is  an  old  Celtic  bell  from  Llangwynodl,  shown 
side  by  side  with  an  electrotype  of  the  famous  bell  of 
St.  Patrick.  There  is  rather  a sad  note  in  the  story 
of  the  fate  of  the  old  division  bell  of  the  Irish  House 
of  Commons,  which,  when  the  Parliament  was 
abolished,  was  sold  for  use  in  a Dublin  theatre  as 
a call  bell,  eventually  to  be  resold  as  old  metal. 


FIG.  52. — BELL  CAST  BY  JOHN  PENNINGTON  AT  EXETER  IN  1670. 


FIG.  53. — GROUP  OF  BELL-METAL  MORTARS. 
[In  the  British  Museum.) 


223 


BELLS  AND  BELL-METAL  CASTINGS  225 


That  curio  would  at  this  juncture  have  been  regarded 
as  an  historical  relic  of  some  value. 

The  restoration  of  bells  sometimes  leads  to  mis- 
takes when  it  is  found  that  the  inscriptions  upon  them 
appear  to  indicate  an  older  date  than  would  be 
judged  to  be  correct  from  their  appearance.  Of  such 
restoration  work  an  instance  may  be  given  of  the 
peal  of  twelve  bells  recently  placed  in  the  tower  of 
St.  Mary’s  Church,  which  has  become  the  cathedral 
of  the  new  diocese  of  Chelmsford.  The  bells  were 
dedicated  in  the  presence  of  ringers  from  a large 
number  of  towns  and  villages  in  Essex,  a county 
noted  for  its  bell-towers  and  bells.  The  peal  of  ten 
replaces  one  cast  in  1777,  and  the  old  inscriptions 
have  been  placed  on  the  new  bells.  One  reads  : 

“ Tho’  much  against  us  may  be  said, 

To  speak  for  ourselves  we  are  not  afraid.” 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  pleasing  thoughts  associated 
with  bells  is  that  their  earliest  use  has  been  per- 
petuated throughout  the  ages.  The  sheep  bell  hung 
round  the  neck  of  the  bellwether  in  Eastern  lands 
sounding  so  sweetly  in  the  days  of  the  Psalmist  of 
old,  finds  its  replica  on  the  downlands  of  the  Southern 
counties  and  on  Salisbury  Plain  to-day,  for  there  and 
in  many  other  parts  of  rural  England  the  tinkling 
jingle  of  the  sheep  bells  may  be  heard. 

Bells  are  not  without  their  rivals,  for  gongs  have 
been  used  in  Eastern  countries  for  years,  and  now 
they  are  popular  elsewhere.  They  were  originally  a 
disc  of  beaten  metal  with  upturned  rim,  although  in 
some  countries  they  took  the  place  of  drums  in  war- 


226  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


fare,  as  well  as  playing  a part  in  religious  services. 
The  circular  gong  is  associated  with  China,  Japan, 
and  Java.  The  Burmese  gong  is  of  triangular  form, 
and  by  way  of  contrast  is  made  of  polished  metal, 
whereas  those  of  the  first-mentioned  countries  usually 
show  hammer  marks.  Many  of  the  old  gongs  were 
exceedingly  musical,  and  when  struck  with  a leather- 
covered  wooden  mallet  were  capable  of  producing  a 
variety  of  sounds.  Gongs  old  and  new  vary  in  size 
and,  consequently,  in  depth  of  tone  and  volume  of 
sound.  Among  the  Eastern  curios  there  are  some 
highly  decorative  examples,  especially  among  the 
smaller  table  gongs,  the  stands  of  which  were  often 
enriched  by  decorative  ornament  with  inlays  and 
enamels. 

Old  Mortars. 

On  account  of  being  made  of  the  same  kind  of 
alloy,  bronze  mortars  are  referred  to  in  this  chapter. 
They  were  usually  cast  by  the  bellfounders  from  the 
metal  they  used  for  bells,  and  many  of  them  when 
struck  give  forth  sonorous  and  deep-toned  sounds. 
These  mortars  were  moulded  and  often  decorated 
with  fanciful  designs,  frequently  with  the  arms  or 
initials  of  the  prospective  owners,  others  being  dated. 
Those  shown  in  Fig.  53  are  representative  types. 

Many  of  the  early  mortars  appear  to  have  been 
imported  into  this  country.  The  Dutch  founders 
made  many  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, some  being  especially  handsome  and  of  large 
size.  Others  still  more  ornate  were  of  Italian, 
Portuguese,  and  Spanish  origin. 


BELLS  AND  BELL-METAL  CASTINGS  227 


In  course  of  time  the  use  of  bell-metal  was  dis- 
carded, and  brass  mortars,  cast  and  afterwards  turned 
in  a lathe,  came  into  vogue.  These  gradually 
became  little  used,  and  when  pestles  and  mortars 
were  needed  in  the  domestic  kitchen,  more  modern 
types  of  marble  and  composition  were  introduced. 
To-day,  these  once  necessary  domestic  appliances 
are  relegated  to  the  chimney-piece  as  honoured 
ornaments  in  the  kitchen  ; the  older  and  more 
valuable  bell-metal  mortars  being  given  more 
prominent  positions  upon  sideboard  or  cabinet. 
Such  is  the  story  of  the  bellfounders,  whose  art 
remains  among  modern  crafts. 


XI 


CIVIC 

EMBLEMS 

AND 

WEIGHTS 

AND 

MEASURES 


CHAPTER  XI 


CIVIC  EMBLEMS  AND  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


The  ancient  horn — The  badge  of  office —Weighing  instruments — 
Measures  in  Exeter  Museum — Our  standards. 


The  sounding  of  brass  and  the  tinkling  of  cymbals 
have  heralded  in  many  State  pageants.  Civic  pomp 
and  splendour  have  been  enriched  by  brilliant 
uniforms,  and  the  sunlight  has  flashed  on  many 
a thrilling  event  in  national  history.  In  the  relics 
of  former  glories  we  find  emblems  of  the  doings 
of  the  past,  and  amidst  ruined  buildings  or  those 
halls  now  shorn  of  much  of  their  former  grandeur — 
their  original  purpose  forgotten,  or,  perchance,  mis- 
understood— the  collector  seeks  symbols  of  office  and 
hoards  them  when  found  as  mere  curios. 

In  this  chapter  such  civic  emblems  and  prosaic 
weights  and  measures  are  grouped.  A curious 
combination  some  may  think.  Very  appropriate, 
however,  when  we  note  the  close  connection  which 
once  existed  between  those  old  corporations  and 
guilds  who  rejoiced  in  emblems  of  office  and  enjoyed 
the  custody  of  standards  of  weights  and  measures, 

fulfilling  the  duties  which  had  been  thrust  upon  them 

281 


232  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


by  powers  and  authorities  only  too  willing  to  depute 
to  private  bodies  necessary  work  for  which  they  had 
no  equipment  and  no  organization. 

The  Ancient  Horn. 

Civil  authority  and  even  State  control  could,  in 
days  gone  by,  only  be  sustained  by  plenty  of  pomp 
and  show.  The  populace  were  awed  by  giant 
insignia  and  much  parade  of  power  to  enforce  the 
authority  held.  In  days  before  there  were  news- 
papers to  make  announcements,  and  no  printing 
presses  to  print  posters  and  proclamations,  the 
calling  of  a public  meeting  at  which  declarations 
could  be  made  or  decisions  arrived  at,  was  a matter 
of  no  small  importance.  The  sounding  horn  had 
been  used  from  primitive  times  to  call  together 
the  people,  and  the  gatherings  of  the  folk  mote 
were  heralded  in  and  assembled  by  a loud  blast 
on  the  “ moot  horn.”  The  moot  or  meeting  of  the 
people  of  a village  or  hamlet  began  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  when  such  assemblies  were  held  in  the  open 
air.  Later  came  the  moot  hall,  which  preceded  the 
guildhall  of  days  when  traders  and  merchants  were 
incorporated  into  fraternal  guilds.  The  horn  was 
the  signal  for  calling  such  assemblies  commonly  in 
use  in  old  towns,  and  such  relics  of  the  past  are 
now  preserved  with  care — emblems  of  altered  times 
to  those  who  are  familiar  with  them.  In  Fig.  55  is 
shown  the  moot  horn  of  Winchester,  a beautiful 
example  of  ancient  metal-work.  There  is  a similar 
horn  at  Dover,  which  is  sounded  still  according  to 
custom  at  the  election  of  the  mayor. 


FIG.  54.  AN  EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY  FLAGSTAFF  HEAD  OF  BRASS 
ORIGINALLY  GILT. 


FIG.  55 —THE  WINCHESTER  MOOT  HORN. 
{^In  the  Guildhall  Museum^  Winchester. ) 


233 


CIVIC  EMBLEMS 


235 


The  moot  horn  is  not  quite  lost  in  modern  pro- 
cedure, for  the  heralds  march  in  Royal  processions 
and  precede  the  proclamation  of  regal  and  civic 
state  as  of  yore,  on  those  rare  occasions  calling  a 
halt  from  everyday  occupations  by  the  trumpet’s 
blast. 

The  Badge  of  Office. 

The  mace  is  with  us  to-day  as  the  chief  emblem 
of  office.  Without  it  no  civil  gathering  of  import- 
ance in  London  would  be  complete,  and  when 
robbed  of  its  presence  no  law  can  be  enacted  at 
Westminster.  The  “bauble”  Cromwell  caused  to 
be  removed  was  a symbol  of  historic  and  ancient 
fame,  deep-rooted  in  the  minds  of  even  stern 
Puritans.  It  had  to  be  banished  ere  the  Parliament 
was  dissolved  ! 

The  mace  is  truly  the  lineal  and  direct  sign  of 
power  and  authority,  for  it  was  the  ancient  battle-axe 
which  could  deal  the  deadly  blow  that  was  first  held 
up  before  the  sovereign,  and  in  brass  or  gilt  the 
tawdry  symbol  took  its  place  and  has  ever  since 
retained  its  significance. 

In  lesser  degree  the  staff  or  stave  of  office  has 
remained  an  ensign  of  authority.  The  heads  of 
such  staves  are  often  decorative  and  surmounted 
by  some  appropriate  emblem  or  well-known  sign 
of  office. 

The  flagstaff  head  shown  in  Fig.  54  is  of  eighteenth- 
century  date ; its  very  beautiful  openwork  ornament 
was  probably  of  gilt.  It  is  an  excellent  example  of 
English  workmanship  of  that  period. 

12 


236  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Weighing  Instruments. 

The  Founders’  Company  exercised  an  oversight 
over  weighing  instruments  and  weights  and  had 
difficulties  to  contend  with,  for  there  were  many 
irregularities  and  not  a few  differences  in  the 
standards  used  in  various  localities.  The  scales  of 
traders  of  olden  time  were  far  from  accurate,  and 
there  was  abundant  need  of  standard  weights  and 
measures  such  as  were  kept  in  some  of  the  old 
country  towns.  Winchester  and  Exeter  are  two 
places  where  care  has  been  taken  of  the  old  standards, 
and  in  both  of  these  towns  ancient  standards  may  be 
seen.  Similar  standards  formerly  kept  in  other 
towns  have  been  scattered,  and  not  infrequently 
old  specimens — obviously  standards  from  the  in- 
scriptions upon  them — are  met  with  in  private 
collections. 

Those  now  in  the  Winchester  Museum  extend 
over  a considerable  period,  ranging  in  antiquity  from 
the  reign  of  Henry  III  to  Elizabeth.  The  original 
bushel  which  became  the  standard  on  which  other 
measures  were  based  is  still  preserved  in  Winchester. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII,  one  William  Nele  was 
commissioned  to  make  further  copies,  on  which  the 
sum  of  fifty  pounds  was  expended.  The  transaction 
was  recorded  in  the  State  papers  of  i486  as  follows  : 
“To  William  Nele,  gunn  founder  and  brasier  of 
London,  upon  makyng  of  diverse  measures  and 
weights  accordinge  to  the  olde  Standarde  of 
Englande,  to  be  sent  into  several  shires  and  cities 
of  Englande,  accordinge  to  the  King’s  command- 
ment, and  by  the  advice  of  the  Counsaal  at  diverse 


FIG.  56. — THE  WINCHESTER  BUSHEL  (STANDARD  MEASURE). 


FIG.  57. — OLD  MEASURES  BASED  ON  THE  WINCHESTER  STANDARD. 

(■ Sketched  by  the  permission  of  the  Corporation  of  the  City  of  Winchester.) 


237 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


239 


tymes.”  The  ancient  bronze  bushel  of  great  historic 
interest  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  56.  Among  the  other 
standards  kept  with  the  “ bushel  ” in  the  Winchester 
Museum  are  those  shown  in  Fig.  57 — all  measures 
based  on  similar  standards.  Tudor  examples  are 
also  still  in  the  possession  of  the  local  authorities 
at  Norwich,  Salisbury,  Northampton,  Southamp- 
ton, and  Exeter.  Fig.  58  is  another  example  of 
a pint  measure,  dated  1601,  the  crowned  initials 
“ E.R.”  upon  it,  of  course,  indicating  “ ELIZABETH 
REGINA.”  A later  Winchester  pint,  dated  1704,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  59. 

Measures  in  Exeter  Museum. 

When  it  was  enacted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII 
that  certain  towns  should  hold  copies  of  the  ancient 
standards,  Exeter  was  the  city  chosen  wherein  were 
deposited  the  standards  for  the  Shire  of  Devon. 
They  are  now  on  view  in  the  Royal  Albert  Memorial 
Museum  in  Exeter,  supplemented  by  other  standards 
legalized  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  by  more  recent 
copies  of  authorized  standards.  There  are  five 
standards,  dated  1799,  consisting  of  the  Winchester 
bushel,  peck,  and  half-peck,  and  standard  coal 
measure  of  peck  and  half-peck.  A bronze  standard 
of  the  time  of  William  and  Mary  is  engraved  “ FOR 
THE  CITTY  AND  COVNTY  OF  EXON  1689  ; ” and  a 
standard  gallon,  embossed  with  crown  and  mono- 
gram, is  engraved  “ E.R.  ELIZABETH  REGINA,  1601  ; ”. 
There  are  also  standard  wine  measures ; one  engraved 
on  one  side  “CITY  OF  EXETER  1797  ” and  on  the 
reverse  “HALF  PINT.  WINE,”  and  another  on  the 


240  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


reverse,  “ GILL.  WINE.”  An  exceptionally  interesting 
piece  is  a standard  ale  gallon  of  the  time  of  the 
Commonwealth,  engraved  “ AN  ALE  GALLON  SIZED 
AND  SEALED  IN  THE  TOWER  OF  LONDON  BY  ME 
JOHN  REYNOLDS  OF  THE  MYNT.  ANO.  1653.” 
Among  the  standard  weights  included  in  this 
interesting  exhibit  is  a 14  lb.  bronze  weight  of  the 
time  of  Henry  VII,  embossed  with  portcullis  and 
rose,  and  engraved  “HENRIC  septim.”  It  was 
found  some  years  ago  among  old  metal  at  a store 
in  Exeter,  the  manner  of  its  discovery  indicating 
the  possibility  of  further  finds  of  a similar  nature 
in  other  towns.  The  little  Troy  weights  are  excep- 
tionally well  preserved ; the  weights  according  to 
their  engraving  are  32  oz.,  64  oz.,  128  oz.,  and 
256  oz.  On  the  largest  specimen  the  legend  runs : 
“ ANO  . DO  . EL  . REG  . XXX  . 1588.”  and  on  the  upper 
edge,  “ CCLVI . ”,  the  smaller  weights  being  similarly 
indicated.  These  were  all  used  as  the  standards 
at  Exeter  until  the  year  1 824.  Another  interesting 
specimen  is  the  standard  yard  and  ell  bed  used  in 
Exeter  for  testing  the  rods  used  as  cloth  measures, 
the  groove  on  the  standard  on  the  engraved  side 
being  one  yard,  that  on  the  reverse  one  ell  (=45 
inches).  The  inscription  on  the  standard  yard 
reads:  “CIVITAS  EXON  CHRISTOPHER  COKE  ESQ. 
MAYOR  . WILLIAM  BOLITHO  RECEIVER  1693.”  In 
the  same  museum  there  are  also  six  brass  stamping 
blocks  formerly  in  use  at  the  Exeter  Custom  House 
in  connection  with  old  Exeter  trades. 

Mediaeval  London  yields  the  collector  many 
choice  pieces.  Beautiful  little  scale  beams  of  bronze 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


241 


and  brass  have  been  found  in  or  near  London  Wall. 
Scales  of  antiquity,  too,  have  sometimes  been  in  the 
possession  of  old  families  for  centuries  almost  with- 
out their  knowing  or  appreciating  their  value.  Not 
long  ago  some  beautiful  little  scales  made  of  brass, 
which  must  have  been  made  more  than  two  hundred 
years  ago,  were  picked  up  on  an  old  barrow  where 
the  man  who  bought  “ odd  things  ” had  it  for  sale, 
and  thought  it  to  be  one  of  the  almost  valueless 
curios  in  the  remains  of  sundries  he  had  bought 
from  the  caretaker  of  an  empty  house.  In  the 
Guildhall  Museum  there  are  scales  and  weights  of 
types  usual  in  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seven- 
teenth centuries.  One  of  these  is  decorated  with 
a band  of  stars,  another  of  triangular  shape  is 
stamped  with  a merchant's  mark — that  also  was 
found  on  the  site  of  London  Wall.  Another 
remarkably  interesting  curio  is  an  octagonal  weight 
evidently  answering  the  purpose  of  a baker’s  weight, 
and  perhaps  as  an  advertisement,  too,  for  it  is 
engraved,  “WEIGHT  OF  A QUARTERN  LOAF,  SOLD 
BY  JAMES  BULL,  1 24,  LEADENHALL  STREET.” 

Our  Standards. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
a very  pleasing  collection  can  inexpensively  be 
made  out  of  old  money  changers’  weights,  both 
English  and  foreign.  They  were  chiefly  used  with 
the  pocket  scales  at  one  time  carried  about  by 
traders  as  a precaution  against  the  numerous  clipped 
and  light-weight  coins  in  circulation.  Among  these 
little  weights  are  those  which  were  used  for  testing 


242  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


what  are  now  obsolete  gold  coins,  such  as  angel, 
guinea,  half-guinea,  and  seven-shilling  piece. 

Some  of  the  old  Roman  bell  weights  are  inter- 
esting ; they  took  their  shape  from  more  ancient 
weights  in  the  form  of  a pagan  deity,  probably 
Mercury,  who  was  looked  upon  as  a god  of  scales 
and  weights.  In  some  collections  larger  Continental 
weights  are  met  with ; those  illustrated  in  Fig.  60 
representing  three  French  weights  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum. 

When  examining  old  weights  and  measures  we 
often  wonder  at  the  origin  of  such  curious  tables 
of  weight  formulated  on  somewhat  perplexing 
standards,  ridiculed  as  long  obsolete  by  supporters 
of  the  metric  systems.  They  would  sweep  them 
away ; but  to  do  so  would  snap  one  more  link 
with  the  historic  past,  and  perhaps  cause  us  to 
forget  the  very  simple  origin  of  so  many  of  our 
so-called  complicated  systems,  the  outcome  of  a 
slowly  developing  commerce — very  different  now  to 
the  days  when  our  standards  were  formulated.  The 
baseline  of  our  weights  and  measures  is  to  be  found 
in  a single  grain  of  corn,  such  as  would  seem  to  be 
Nature’s  gift — the  staff  of  life  ! It  was  a natural 
standard  for  agriculturists,  who  would  be  the  first  to 
use  it,  to  adopt.  Not  only  was  the  grain  of  corn  the 
standard  of  measurement  and  weight,  but  a given 
number  gave  the  weight  value  to  the  penny  sterling. 
The  grain  retained  its  prominent  position  in  our 
calculations  long  after  standards  had  been  fixed, 
for  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII  it  was  enacted  that 
the  bushel  measure  should  contain  eight  gallons  of 


FIG.  58. — A PINT  MEASURE  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  ELIZABETH. 
FIG.  59. — A WINCHESTER  PINT  OF  THE  DAYS  OF  QUEEN  ANNE. 


FIG.  60. — OLD  FRENCH  WEIGHTS. 
{In  the  British  Museum.) 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


245 


wheat,  and  that  the  gallon  should  weigh  eight  pounds, 
the  pound  to  be  of  twelve  ounces  Troy,  each  ounce 
equal  to  twenty  silver  pennies,  every  one  of  which 
should  be  of  weight  equivalent  to  thirty-two  grains 
of  dry  wheat. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  a still  earlier  standard 
— that  of  the  Roman  Empire — was  based  on  barley- 
corns, of  which  there  were  twenty-four  to  the  ounce, 
a measurement  adopted  at  Troyes,  in  France,  having 
been  brought  from  Cairo  during  the  Crusades.  Thus 
in  this  simple  story  we  see  the  origin  of  Troy  weight 
which  in  after  years  was  used  concurrently  with  the 
later  avoirdupois  (goods  by  weight),  the  standard 
adopted  for  heavy  wares. 


XII 


BRONZES 

AND 

THEIR 

REPLICAS 


CHAPTER  XII 

BRONZES  AND  THEIR  REPLICAS 

Early  figure  modelling — Statues  in  public  places — Replicas  in  minia- 
ture. 

The  art  of  sculpture  was  practised  by  the  ancients, 
and  long  before  the  beautiful  bronzes  for  which  the 
artists  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  famous  carvers  of 
wood,  and  sculptors  of  stone  and  marble,  had  cut, 
inscribed,  and  fashioned  human  figures,  animals,  and 
fabulous  creatures  according  to  their  whims  and 
fancies.  In  moulds  cut  in  stone  the  early  casters  in 
metal  produced  the  objects  which  we  roughly  class  as 
bronze,  and  they  are  preserved  to-day  as  reminders  of 
those  who  lived  before  history  was  written.  When 
the  early  Bronze  Age  had  passed  away  and  the  use 
of  iron  was  understood,  the  art  of  sculpture  in  stone 
was  practised  by  the  Egyptians  and  by  other  Eastern 
nations.  Then  came  the  beautiful  metal-work  of 
Ancient  Greece  ; the  statues,  trophies,  and  groups, 
produced  in  those  days  when  Greece  excelled  in  the 
fine  arts,  have  acquired  a fame  which  has  never  been 
exceeded  by  sculptors  or  workers  in  metals  in  modern 
days.  The  Italians  of  a later  period  showed  their 

249 


250  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


religious  emotions  in  the  metallic  works  of  art 
they  produced  in  early  mediaeval  days ; and  still 
later  French  modellers  have  excelled  in  human 
expression. 

Many  of  the  great  works  of  the  old  masters  in 
bronze  are  unique,  and  they  are  retained  as  great 
treasures  in  the  national  museums  where  they  have 
found  lasting  homes.  For  the  benefit  of  connois- 
seurs of  art  many  of  the  great  works  have  been 
copied,  and  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  at 
South  Kensington  and  in  other  places  there  are 
replicas  in  metal  and  in  other  materials,  faithful 
copies  of  the  original  bronzes  which  are  so  rare. 
The  educational  value  of  a gallery  of  ancient  art, 
whether  expressed  in  marble,  bronze,  stone,  or  other 
materials,  is  considerable  ; it  not  only  tends  to  the 
appreciation  of  modern  art  as  represented  by  the 
statues  and  monuments  in  our  parks  and  gardens, 
and  in  those  smaller  works  which  adorn  public 
buildings  and  private  mansions,  but  it  leads  to  the 
appreciation  of  the  lesser  replicas  of  great  works,  such 
as  artistic  groups,  figures,  and  bronzes  which  have 
been  copied  in  miniature.  Many  of  the  most  im- 
portant works  of  the  modeller  and  caster  of  bronze 
groups  and  figures  are  familiar  to  students  of  art  and 
collectors  of  curios,  in  that  so  many  of  these 
important  studies  have  been  reproduced  or  copied  ; 
sometimes  the  copies  are  equally  as  beautiful  as  the 
original,  although  on  a smaller  scale,  and  many  of 
them  have  quite  an  antique  appearance,  for  they  are 
by  no  means  modern,  such  works  of  art  having  been 
reproduced  very  many  years  ago. 


251 


FIG.  61.  BRONZE  TIGER,  BY  ANTOINE  ROUIS  BARYE, 


BRONZES  AND  THEIR  REPLICAS  253 


Early  Figure  Modelling. 

The  human  figure  in  its  most  perfectly  known  form 
was  early  made  the  model  from  which  artists  sculp- 
tured stone  and  moulded  figures.  Even  some  of  the 
crude  attempts  of  native  races  have  evidently  been 
intended  to  represent  human  beings  with  whom  they 
associated  or  races  they  held  in  fear,  but  they  were 
not  always  successful.  Bronze  statues  cast  in  moulds 
were  known  in  Egypt,  and  throughout  later  periods 
most  of  the  civilized  races  have  employed  methods 
by  which  they  have  been  able  with  more  or  less 
accuracy  to  reproduce  in  other  substances  of  a more 
lasting  character  the  perishable  flesh  and  blood  of 
the  human  race.  In  a similar  way  the  personified 
deities  have  been  perpetuated  in  bronze  and  many  of 
them  are  simply  idolized  humanity.  Sometimes 
these  statues  have  been  very  large,  far  beyond  what 
is  generally  known  as  life-size.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  many  of  these  colossal  statues 
when  raised  to  a great  height  are  by  no  means  out  of 
proportion  to  the  buildings  on  which  they  were  placed, 
and  assumed  a normal  size  when  viewed  from  below. 
It  is  said  that  one  of  the  most  striking  colossal  figures 
was  that  of  Minerva,  crowning  the  summit  of  the 
Acropolis.  The  largest  statue  seems  to  be  that  of 
Nero,  which  rose  150  ft.  In  more  modern  times 
statues  have  been  brought  down  to  normal  size. 
Visitors  to  Rome,  however,  recognise  what  a wonderful 
achievement  it  must  have  been  to  place  that  immense 
statue  of  St.  Peter  in  position.  The  artists  of  old 
were  indeed  clever,  and  not  only  have  they  justly 
been  accorded  fame  for  the  size  and  beautiful  propor- 


254  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


tions  of  their  statues,  but  many  of  the  ancient  bronzes 
have  gained  their  greatest  notoriety  from  the  great 
beauty  with  which  the  sculptors  must  have  idealized 
their  models.  Many  of  the  antiques  are  almost 
perfect  in  form,  and  we  are  forced  to  wonder  what 
kind  of  men  and  women  their  models  were. 

Classic  Models. 

The  classic  bronzes  were  almost  invariably  con- 
ceptions drawn  from  imagination,  but  the  beautiful 
forms  of  the  athletes  and  Greek  maidens  helped  the 
artist  in  his  estimate  of  the  deities  he  personified. 
In  those  bronzes  we  see  the  magic  touch  of  the 
master  hand,  and  perhaps  of  the  belief  in  the  mystic 
attributes  so  cleverly  designed.  Thus  we  have 
figures  of  Hercules,  Mars,  Venus,  and  many  others, 
which  can  be  copied,  and  now  and  then  by  some 
stroke  of  good  luck  a genuine  antique  is  added  to 
the  collector’s  museum. 

Statues  in  Public  Places. 

During  the  last  half-century  simple  statues 
erected  to  the  memories  of  noted  politicians  and 
military  men  in  public  parks,  streets,  and  open 
places,  have  been  added  to  by  more  realistic  groups. 
It  would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  attempt 
categorical  descriptions  of  such  bronzes  to  be  seen  in 
the  public  places  of  our  great  cities,  and  it  would  be 
still  more  difficult  to  rightly  classify  them  either  in 
their  order  of  merit  or  of  the  appropriateness  of  their 
selection.  It  seems  justly  fit  that  those  who  have 
been  associated  with  the  metallic  art  should  be  com- 


255 


FIG.  62.— BRONZE  UON,  BY  BARYE. 


BRONZES  AND  THEIR  REPLICAS  257 


memorated  in  copper  and  brass.  To  Pittsburg 
belongs  the  honour  of  having  remembered  the  father 
of  the  art  of  hammering  into  shape  the  metals.  In 
that  city,  on  a massive  pedestal,  stands  a colossal 
bronze  figure  of  Tubal  Cain,  who,  in  his  brief  life’s 
history  given  in  Genesis,  is  spoken  of  as  an  “ artificer 
in  brass.”  He  fittingly  heads  the  list  of  metallurgists 
and  scientists,  to  many  of  whom  monuments  have 
been  erected. 

The  use  of  bronze  in  monuments  is  not  confined  to 
figures  of  great  men,  for  bronze  and  brass  ornament 
often  adds  to  the  magnificence  of  a national  memorial. 
As  examples  of  the  use  of  bronze  for  that  purpose 
mention  may  be  made  of  the  bronze  lions,  after 
Landseer,  at  the  four  corners  of  Nelson’s  Column  in 
Trafalgar  Square.  The  use  of  bronze,  as  adding  to 
the  adornment  or  appearance  of  an  antiquity  in  stone, 
is  exemplified  in  the  two  bronze  sphinxes  at  the  base 
of  Cleopatra’s  Needle  on  the  Thames  Embankment. 

The  bronzes  of  comparatively  modern  days  are 
mostly  the  work  of  the  founder,  cast  after  the  sculptor 
has  done  his  work.  Some  of  the  early  examples  of 
Etruscan  and  Egyptian  art  consisted  of  bronze  or 
brass  hammered  into  form  by  hand,  or  made  of  plates 
riveted  together.  Others  appear  to  have  been  beaten 
or  embossed  into  high  relief  in  a mould.  Some  of 
the  cleverest  castings  of  bronze,  however,  are  found 
in  the  work  of  Eastern  nations,  the  best  examples 
being  idols  and  temple  ornaments  (see  Chapter  XIV). 

Replicas  in  Miniature. 

The  so-called  miniatures  range  from  important 


258  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


reproductions  for  household  and  gallery  ornament  to 
the  quite  miniature  bronzes  which  adorn  the  mantel- 
piece or  cabinet.  Many  of  the  statues  and  groups  of 
ancient  and  modern  forms  have  been  copied.  There 
is,  however,  another  school  of  art  which  to  many  is 
very  attractive.  Just  as  pictures  of  animal  life  are 
appreciated  by  many,  so  the  sculptures  and  bronzes 
of  well-known  animal  artists  have  been  justly  appre- 
ciated. In  France  there  are  the  works  of  Antoine 
Louis  Barye,  who  was  born  in  Paris  in  1795.  It  is 
said  that  Barye  discovered  his  real  bent  from  watching 
the  wild  beasts  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  Some  of 
his  great  works  were  exhibited  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  his  beautiful  models  have  been 
much  copied.  Three  of  the  most  popular  are  shown 
in  Figs.  61,  62,  and  63.  There  is  the  tiger  which  he 
exhibited  in  1830,  and  the  lion  and  the  beautifully 
formed  stag.  Such  works  of  art  are  worthy  of  a 
place  in  any  collection  of  metal,  for  they  represent 
an  important  French  school.  Of  men  who  have 
made  names  for  themselves  there  are  many  whose 
statues  are  found  in  private  collections.  A very 
favourite  one  is  that  of  Robert  Burns,  whose  colossal 
statue  was  erected  at  Ayr  on  the  occasion  of  the 
one  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  poet’s 
birth.  Burns  is  reported  to  have  said  on  his  death- 
bed : “ They’ll  think  mair  o’  me  a hundred  years 
after  I am  dead,”  a truism  none  will  deny. 


FIG.  63. — BRONZE  STAG,  BY  BARYE. 


259 


XIII 


ORIENTAL 

BRONZES 

AND 

BRASSES 


CHAPTER  XIII 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES 

Countries  of  origin — How  some  Oriental  curios  are  derived — A 
wealth  of  metal  on  view — Various  Indian  wares — Chinese  and 
Japanese  art. 

Under  the  somewhat  generic  term  “ Oriental”  we 
class  those  numerous  bronzes  and  other  art  treasures 
which  come  to  us  from  the  East  and  the  Far  East. 
Early  in  the  mediaeval  days  Eastern  influence  domin- 
ated the  craftsmen  of  Europe,  and  many  of  those 
who  took  part  in  the  Crusades,  and  later  in  adven- 
turous journeys  into  the  northern  part  of  Africa, 
bordering  upon  the  Great  Sea,  brought  back  to  their 
Western  homes  curios  which  were  undoubtedly 
Oriental  in  their  design. 

Countries  of  Origin. 

A collection  of  copper  and  brass  to  be  at  all 
representative  must  be  varied  and  cosmopolitan  in 
selection.  Such  a collection  should  include  vessels 
of  utility  and  ornamental  objects  which  show  the 
aims  of  the  artist  who  designed  them.  Incidentally, 
too,  such  objects  exhibit  the  sameness  of  purpose 


264  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


existing  in  many  lands ; although  the  methods  of 
domestic  procedure  and  the  ways  of  living  vary  until 
their  common  origin  is  scarcely  recognizable.  In 
such  a collection  of  domestic  curios  the  influence 
of  Saracenic  art  is  seen  in  the  ewers  and  basins  and 
similar  vessels  which  come  from  the  lands  where  the 
wild  Arab  tribes  lived  for  centuries  in  an  almost 
barbarous  state  on  the  edge  of  the  Syrian  desert. 
Many  of  these  quaint  hammered  copper  vessels  are 
of  barbaric  beauty,  such  as,  for  instance,  the  coffee- 
pot shown  in  Fig.  64  and  the  basin  in  Fig.  65. 

There  are  some  pleasing  customs  savouring  of 
patriarchal  days  still  practised  by  Arab  races. 
Such,  for  instance,  when  the  sheik  has  finished  his 
morning  meal  he  throws  a stone  into  his  brass  or 
copper  coffee-pot  as  a sign  to  his  followers  to 
strike  camp. 

‘ k Awake,  for  morning,  in  the  bowl  of  night. 

Has  flung  the  stone  which  puts  the  stars  to  flight, 

And,  ho  ! the  hunter  of  the  East  has  caught  the  Sultan’s  turritt 
in  a noose  of  light.” 


The  Arab  metal-work  is  generally  covered  over 
with  characteristic  designs  and  distinctive  styles. 
Equally  characteristic  is  the  finely  engraved  orna- 
ment on  many  small  brass  objects  made  by  Arab 
craftsmen.  This  is  exemplified  in  the  small  and 
beautifully  engraved  brass  writing  boxes  which  were 
once  a feature  among  the  educated  scribes  of  Arab 
fame.  One  such  case  is  to  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum,  the  work  of  Mahmud,  son  of  Souker,  of 
Bagdad,  made  in  1281.  The  style  is  said  by  ex- 


FIG.  64. — COFFEE-POT  OF  HAMMERED  COPPER  FROM  SYRIA. 


265 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  267 


perts  to  combine  the  art  motives  of  Mesapotamia  and 
Egypt,  which  in  the  thirteenth  century  very  naturally 
met  in  Syria.  Another  distinctive  style  is  noticeable 
in  the  art  of  the  metal-workers  of  the  Mameluke 
dynasty  of  Egypt ; their  arabesques  showed  more 
realistic  foliage  than  the  Arab  decorations  of  an 
earlier  date. 

Antiquaries  always  turn  quite  naturally  to  Egypt, 
that  land  with  such  a great  past,  when  seeking  for 
inspiration  from  the  great  monuments  which  are 
masterpieces  of  art — in  bronze  and  stone.  These 
they  find  there  it  is  true,  but  the  more  important 
pieces  of  metal-work  of  that  early  period  are  found 
in  Assyria,  from  whence  came  ponderous  gates  of 
brass,  covered  with  the  remains  of  delicate  tracery 
and  inscriptions.  Such  works  of  ancient  art  are 
rightly  given  places  of  prominence  in  our  museums  ; 
the  private  collector,  however,  is  generally  content 
with  the  lesser  bronze  antiquities  of  Egypt  which  he 
can  collect.  These  include  mirrors  and  many  small 
articles  for  the  toilet  and  some  delightful  domestic 
bronzes.  Among  them  are  charming  little  ewers 
with  long  projecting  spouts  and  curiously  wrought 
curved  handles  ornamented  with  masks  and  shells. 

The  curios  which  reach  us  from  Cairo  are  mostly 
in  strict  accordance  with  Egyptian  characteristics. 
The  earlier  examples  are  representative  of  the  art 
of  Northern  Egypt  as  it  was  expressed  by  the  metal - 
r workers  between  the  thirteenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, throughout  which  there  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  any  great  divergence  of  style,  although  when 
objects  known  to  have  been  made  during  the  earlier 


268  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


part  of  that  period,  and  others  fashioned  during  the 
later,  the  progress  and  development,  although  it 
had  been  slow,  is  very  noticeable.  There  are  also 
some  traces  of  outside  influences.  In  Fig.  io  there 
is  an  early  lamp  of  brass  in  the  form  of  a bird, 
inlaid  with  copper,  an  example  placed  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Quite  different  is  the  late 
example  (eighteenth  century)  given  in  Fig.  64, 
which  is  a coffee-pot  with  a bucket  handle  and 
another  small  handle  at  the  back  ; the  spout  is 
roughly  worked  with  corrugations  and  quatrefoils, 
on  the  five  bosses  being  the  marks  adopted  by 
the  owner  of  the  shop  in  Cairo  where  it  was  used. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  influence 
of  Saracenic  art  upon  metal-workers  in  places  where 
the  Saracens  came  in  contact  with  the  craftsmen. 
As  indicative  of  this  feature  the  fine  large  brass 
basin  illustrated  in  Fig.  65  is  shown.  Some  portions 
of  the  bowl  have  evidently  been  filled  in  with  silver. 
There  are  other  objects  such  as  bowls,  dishes,  and 
ewers  showing  similar  decorations,  many  of  which 
may  be  seen  along  with  this  example  in  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum. 

The  Saracens  seem  to  have  had  some  influence 
upon  what  are  usually  regarded  as  European  articles; 
thus  in  a collection  of  old  bronze  mortars  there 
are  sometimes  examples  from  countries  in  the 
South  of  Europe  which  show  in  their  designs  these 
characteristics.  The  mortar  had,  of  course,  a very 
general  use,  and  was  needed  everywhere  in  days 
when  so  many  compounds  were  prepared  by  hand 
labour. 


269 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  271 


Persian  art  is  peculiarly  specialistic  in  its  treat- 
ment. The  designs  used  by  the  metal-workers  in 
that  country  from  quite  early  days  were  emblematic 
and  of  an  all-over  conventional  type,  often  inter- 
woven with  scenes.  Even  many  of  the  common 
vessels,  like  bowls  and  covers  and  saucers  of  brass, 
are  cleverly  chased  with  hunting  scenes  and  floral 
attributes,  many  of  the  cups  being  covered  with 
arabesque  ornament. 

Some  of  the  brass  egg-shaped  hooker  bases  are 
chased  in  relief ; the  mounts  of  the  rose-water 
ewers — which  are  often  of  china,  with  metal  linings 
for  holding  ice — are  frequently  decorative.  In  many 
instances  the  vessels  are  ornamented  with  coloured 
inlays,  giving  them  peculiar  colour  effects.  Damascus 
— always  an  important  seat  of  metal-work — has 
supplied  collectors  from  many  countries  with  the 
beautifully  incised  ornament  produced  by  filling  in 
the  cut  spaces  with  fine  gold  or  silver  wire  beaten 
into  the  brass  and  then  polished.  So  important 
has  this  mode  of  giving  relief  become  that  damas- 
cened metal  stands  alone  as  an  art,  seen  at  its  best 
in  the  wonderful  armour  of  the  later  period,  when 
the  utility  of  plate  armour  was  giving  way  to  the 
ornament  which  embellished  the  State  armour — the 
“ dress  suits  ” of  the  regimentals  of  the  Stuart 
days. 

How  some  Oriental  Curios  are  Derived. 

It  is  useful  at  times  to  consider  how  the  curios 
we  collect  have  gradually  accumulated,  and  thus 
to  ascertain  how  they  have  been  secured  in  the 


272  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


past ; and  from  that  we  are  enabled  to  form  some 
estimate  of  further  supplies,  for  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand  regulates  to  some  extent  the  market 
value  of  curios  ; it  has  something  to  do  with  the 
direction  taken  by  curio-hunters. 

Many  curios  have  come  into  this  country  as  the 
result  of  war  and  loot.  Wars  in  the  Far  East  have 
served  the  collector,  and  many  choice  bits  of  metal- 
work have  changed  hands  at  nominal  sums  after 
the  return  of  troops  employed  in  minor  wars  and 
punitive  expeditions.  Our  vast  Indian  Empire, 
however,  supplies  many  beautiful  objects  in  metal, 
both  ancient  and  of  comparatively  recent  days,  but 
even  those  are  so  quaint  and  so  unlike  the  common 
objects  of  British  make  with  which  we  are  familiar 
that  they  are  welcomed  and  find  a fitting  place 
among  antique  copper  and  brass. 

To  understand  the  curios  which  may  be  bought 
in  Eastern  bazaars,  and  more  conveniently  in  the 
numerous  stores  and  shops  where  Indian  curios  are 
sold,  it  is  well  to  become  acquainted  with  a really 
good  representative  collection,  such  as  that  which 
may  be  examined  in  the  Indian  Museum  at  South 
Kensington.  In  several  galleries,  arranged  in  cases 
according  to  the  districts  from  which  the  specimens 
have  been  gathered,  are  to  be  found  metal-work 
ranging  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  present 
day.  Although  some  of  these  are  exceptional  pieces, 
by  far  the  larger  number  are  helpful  to  the  collector 
of  even  modest  means  in  that  they  represent  Indian 
curios  which  may  be  collected  at  trifling  cost.  Such 
objects,  however,  are  unfortunately  too  often  inter- 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  273 


mixed  with  modern  castings  and  copies  offered 
unblushingly  by  the  dealer  to  the  unwary.  Among 
such  curios  from  Indian  bazaars,  purchased  by 
travellers  to  the  less  frequented  districts,  are  very 
many  cooking  utensils.  Some  of  these,  although 
not  very  old,  are  quaint  and  unlike  modern  European 
vessels,  for  the  native  cooks  have  been  slow  to 
accept  any  change  in  their  methods  of  cooking  and 
do  not  take  kindly  to  the  use  of  Western  types 
of  culinary  appliances.  The  Indian  cook  clings 
tenaciously  to  copper  vessels,  and  notwithstanding 
attempts  to  introduce  vessels  of  tin,  aluminium,  and 
enamelled  ware,  the  old  “ chattie  ” is  again  and  again 
brought  out  in  preference.  Most  of  the  vessels  are 
of  primitive  types,  but  they  serve  the  purpose  and 
the  material  is  good  and  lasting.  The  native 
workers  understand  the  requirements  of  Indian  men 
and  women,  and  can  shape  and  hammer  together 
just  what  they  have  for  generations  regarded  as 
“ the  best.”  Clever  indeed  have  been  the  native 
braziers  in  the  past — and  they  still  are — for  they 
possess  in  addition  to  knowledge  of  coppersmithing 
an  excellent  knowledge  of  the  composition  and 
working  qualities  of  the  materials  they  employ. 
They  understand  something  of  the  chemistry  of 
metals,  and  are  careful  when  melting  copper  in 
the  furnace  or  over  the  fire  not  to  overheat  it, 
or  to  allow  the  metal  to  perish  in  processes  of 
manufacture. 

A Wealth  of  Metal  on  View. 

The  collection  of  Asiatic  metal-work  where  sped- 


274  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


mens  from  different  countries,  made  at  various  periods, 
can  be  compared  is,  par  excellence , that  in  the  Indian 
Museum  (the  best  examples  of  richly  wrought  damas- 
cened armour  and  arms  are  found  in  the  Wallace 
Collection  and  at  the  Tower).  The  visitor  on 
entering  is  at  once  absorbed  in  admiring  Indian 
curiosities,  especially  the  products  of  native  craftsmen. 
In  the  vestibule  are  many  remarkable  exhibits,  the 
work  of  Nepal  metal-workers.  Most  of  them  were 
gifts  to  King  George  and  Queen  Mary  when  they 
visited  India  on  the  occasion  of  the  great  Coronation 
Durbar  at  Delhi.  Some  of  the  larger  pieces  were 
the  gift  of  the  Maharajah  and  Prime  Minister  of 
Nepal.  Very  wonderful  is  their  workmanship, 
especially  that  of  the  brass  groups  so  true  to  life. 
One  of  these  represents  a hunting  elephant,  fully 
equipped,  with  attendants  ; others,  too,  are  associated 
with  sports  and  hunting  scenes.  There  are  emblems 
of  demons  and  the  evil  spirits  which  are  so  fully 
believed  in  by  native  dwellers  on  the  borders  of  the 
forest. 

Temple  vessels  are  abundant,  and  among  them 
are  monsters  and  other  fabulous  creatures,  and 
numbers  of  masks,  notably  those  representing  the 
fierce  Dragpo  fiend  Tamdin  (see  Chapter  XIV). 
There  are  some  fine  temple  sets,  and  two  magnificent 
conventional  lions  (temple  guardians).  There  is  also 
a very  interesting  brass  group  of  natives  occupied 
in  various  ways,  one,  for  instance,  carrying  a package 
on  his  shoulder  illustrating  the  method  of  relieving 
the  weight  of  the  bundle  by  a forehead  strap,  by  which 
means  natives  are  enabled  to  sustain  the  strain. 


FIG.  66.— JAPANESE  KETTLE  ( YUIVAKASHI ). 


FIG.  67. — PAIR  OF  VASES  OF  RED-BROWN  COPPER,  RELIEVED  WITH 
BLACK  LAC,  FROM  MORADABAD. 

{In  the  atithoj-'s  collection .) 


275 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  277 


So  intricate  are  many  of  these  cleverly  modelled 
groups  that  it  is  not  always  easy  to  understand  how 
they  have  been  cast.  Especially  remarkable  is  the 
founding  of  the  figure  groups  produced  by  the 
natives  of  the  Patan  district  of  Nepal.  In  most 
cases  they  accomplished  their  task  by  the  circe  perdu 
process  (see  Glossary),  which  enables  them  to  cast 
even  the  most  delicate  groups. 

Some  very  interesting  wares  in  metal  are  obtained 
from  Moradabad  ; they  are  smooth  and  beautifully 
finished,  made  of  brass,  and  partly  tinned.  The  more 
decorative  pieces  are  of  the  early  nineteenth  century, 
and  include  such  objects  as  plates,  water-jars, 
tumblers,  and  sugar-pots  and  covers.  From  Luck- 
now some  fine  trays  are  secured  ; and  many  beautiful 
brass  ewers,  bowls,  and  basins  have  been  obtained 
from  Haidarabad,  where  not  only  comparatively 
modern  but  early  eighteenth-century  brasswork  is 
to  be  found.  Some  of  these  have  a pleasing  effect 
when  polished,  the  design  or  pattern  upon  them 
being  inlaid  with  copper  on  a brass  foundation 
and  then  polished. 

Various  Indian  Wares. 

There  is  an  Indian  ware  known  as  bidri,  beauti- 
fully damascened  in  gold  on  a brass  and  copper  base, 
chiefly  made  in  the  villages  round  Lucknow  and 
Deccan  from  the  seventeenth  century  onwards. 
The  peculiarity  of  these  objects  is  that  they  are 
distinctly  black  and  white,  the  metal  consisting 
of  an  alloy  of  zinc,  copper,  and  lead  afterwards 
damascened  with  silver  which  is  finally  blackened 


278  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


by  pickling.  A favourite  curio  is  a Betel-nut  box 
and  cover  ; there  are  also  spice  boxes  and  objects 
intended  for  the  base  of  a water-pipe.  Many  of 
the  choice  curios  from  Kashmir  in  Northern  India 
are  mostly  of  a dark  red-brown  copper,  and  are 
frequently  incised  and  inlaid  with  lac.  Among 
them  are  domestic  vessels,  the  most  commonly  met 
with  being  the  coffee-pot  ( Kafijosh ).  In  one  famous 
collection  there  is  a curious  boat-shaped  alms-bowl 
of  copper,  chased  with  a running  ornament,  a design 
frequently  employed  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
There  are  some  interesting  Mogul  brasses,  among 
which  are  washhand  basins.  In  these,  too,  the 
decorations  are  frequently  filled  in  with  black  lac. 
Very  different  are  the  brass  and  copper  objects  from 
the  Punjab.  Some  of  pure  copper  are  inlaid  with 
black  lac,  others  are  of  copper-gilt,  looking  in  the 
sunlight  like  burnished  gold.  Some  are  of  brass  ; 
among  the  older  objects  of  special  interest  being 
charcoal  burners  of  fine  brass  with  dome-shaped 
covers.  From  the  Punjab  come  copper  toilet  boxes, 
which  are  usually  fitted  with  locks  terminating  in 
the  form  of  a conventional  lotus.  One  of  the  most 
curious  treasures  in  the  Indian  Museum  secured  from 
that  district  is  a “ black  ” cup,  made  of  a metal  com- 
posed of  quicksilver  and  copper,  a metallic  compound 
supposed  to  give  a digestive  virtue  to  any  liquid 
drank  out  of  it. 

The  variety  of  metal  objects  from  Nepal  is  con- 
siderable. There  are  articles  of  home  decoration 
and  usefulness,  including  charming  toilet  sundries. 
Among  the  lamps  are  many  weird  forms,  a favourite 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  279 


being  a lamp  designed  like  a peacock’s  tail  sup- 
ported by  a lion.  There  are  inkpots  of  symbolical 
forms  with  figures  of  Ganasa,  the  Hindoo  god  of 
wisdom.  There  are  also  many  decorative  water- 
bottles  and  vases  and  beautifully  formed  tazzas  ; 
as  well  as  charming  toilet  boxes  with  raised  diaper 
ornament  and  conventional  patterns. 

From  Madras  come  bowls  and  water-bottles  and 
many  delightful  trinket  boxes,  some  shaped  like 
fishes,  others  of  bird-like  forms.  Some  of  these 
were  intended  for  use  as  receptacles  for  antimony 
salve,  which  is  so  much  used  in  India  for  the  eyes. 
Among  the  more  modern  curios  made  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  spun 
and  turned  brasswork,  especially  vases  and  bowls. 
Travancore  is  also  famous  for  its  artists  in  metal, 
and  especially  for  their  beautiful  decorative  brass 
pots  with  curious  spouts  and  drinking  cups. 

The  little  bullock  bells  are  characteristic  of  many 
parts  of  India,  some  being  prettily  ornamented  and 
of  sweet  tinkling  sounds.  From  Southern  India 
there  are  Betel-nut  cutters  of  unusual  forms,  and 
quite  a variety  of  metal  bowls,  some  being  shaped 
like  a pumpkin.  From  the  same  district  come 
highly  decorative  copper  plaques  and  brass  salvers 
as  well  as  water  vessels. 

The  lamps  from  India  are  of  equal  interest  to 
those  met  with  among  the  antiquities  of  similar 
types  from  other  countries.  Those  of  more  recent 
date,  the  work  of  baptized  natives,  have  for  the  chief 
ornament  emblems  of  the  Christian  religion  instead 
of  those  associated  with  idol  worship  ; although  in 


280  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


some  instances  the  cross  is  flanked  on  either  side 
with  the  sun  and  moon,  reminding  us  of  the  more 
ancient  pagan  religions. 

Many  parts  of  India  are  noted  for  beautiful  in- 
laid lac,  much  of  which  is  extremely  decorative ; the 
vases  illustrated  in  Fig.  67  came  from  Moradabad  ; 
they  are  of  red-brown  copper  relieved  with  black 
lac.  Haidarabad  is  also  noted  for  such  wares,  in 
some  instances  red  as  well  as  black  lac  being  used 
in  the  decorations,  which  are  chiefly  of  conventional 
form. 

The  brasswork  of  Benares  is  well  known,  and 
it  is  still  one  of  the  most  important  features  in 
present-day  Oriental  bazaars  and  shops.  The 
modern  work,  however,  rarely  comes  up  to  the  old, 
for  in  olden  time  great  care  was  taken  in  producing 
varied  forms  and  correct  ornament  in  decoration, 
the  chief  features  of  the  Benares  brasswork  being 
the  series  of  ten  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  represented 
so  often  on  trays,  bowls,  and  smaller  vessels,  such,  for 
instance,  as  spice  boxes  and  perfume  holders,  and 
receptacles  for  pulverized  sandal-wood. 

The  native  princes  of  India  have  always  been 
accustomed  to  State  ceremonial,  and  among  the 
curious  objects  from  that  country  are  symbols  of 
office,  some  of  the  maces  being  beautifully  damas- 
cened with  gold.  The  ceremonial  and  State  swords 
formerly  carried  by  the  princes  are  museum  curios 
of  value,  especially  those  around  which  the  memories 
of  historical  events  cluster,  such  as  the  gauntlet- 
sword  of  brass,  the  hilt  in  the  form  of  a tiger’s  head, 
which  formerly  belonged  to  Ruggoneth  Sookul,  who 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  281 


saved  Captain  Gordon’s  life  during  the  Indian 
Mutiny  in  1857. 

As  it  has  been  suggested  wars  with  Oriental 
potentates  and  the  annexation  of  lands  which  had 
previously  been  under  British  protection  have  from 
time  to  time  enriched  national  as  well  as  private 
collections.  Many  of  the  trophies  of  war  are  unique 
and  do  not  exist  in  duplicate.  In  the  Indian 
Museum  there  are  many  such  objects,  notably  the 
one-time  regalia  of  the  Kings  of  Burma  ; at  South 
Kensington,  too,  there  is  a massive  bowl  of  brass 
on  which  is  engraved  in  picture  characters  the  story 
of  the  history  of  China  as  related  by  Confucius,  and 
transcribed  by  his  pupil  Tso,  five  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era. 

Lamaistic  temple  curios  are  referred  to  in  another 
chapter.  These,  however,  do  not  exhaust  the  metal- 
work from  Thibet.  Indeed,  many  of  the  minor 
objects,  especially  those  of  a domestic  character, 
are  very  pleasing.  The  vessels  used  in  making  tea 
in  Thibet  differ  from  those  in  China — the  home  of 
tea-drinking — in  that  the  process  of  preparing  “the 
cup  that  cheers  but  not  inebriates  ” is  different.  The 
ladies  of  Thibet  take  the  tea-leaves  and  grind  them 
dry  until  they  are  of  the  consistency  of  a fine 
powder,  using  a brass  mortar  for  the  purpose.  They 
then  put  the  powdered  tea  into  a kettle,  and  allow 
it  to  boil  for  about  five  minutes.  The  liquid  is  after- 
wards poured  through  a strainer  into  a tea-urn,  and  a 
little  butter  and  barley  flour  are  added.  This  com- 
pound, after  being  vigorously  churned  up,  is  poured 
from  the  urn  of  wrought  copper  into  teapots,  where 


282  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


it  is  allowed  to  settle  before  it  is  served  up  in 
small  brass  bowls.  Ladles  are  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  taking  the  tea  from  the  urn,  for  it  has 
no  tap,  being  simply  a two-handled  jar  with  a 
cover. 

Some  interesting  curios  are  derived  from  Ceylon, 
especially  those  utensils  made  by  the  Sinhalese,  who, 
it  will  be  remembered,  emigrated  there  from  Bengal 
in  the  sixth  century.  The  chief  copper-workers  in 
the  island  are  the  Veddahs,  an  aboriginal  tribe 
of  the  interior  closely  allied  to  the  Sinhalese.  Their 
work  includes  copper  and  brass  on  which  is  very 
beautiful  repousse  decoration.  Buddhist  influence 
has  always  been  strong  in  Ceylon,  and  it  is  con- 
spicuous in  much  of  the  decoration  of  the  more 
important  metal-work. 

Ceylon  casters  have  turned  out  some  fine  bells 
and  many  heavy  bronze  lamps.  The  lesser  objects, 
which  are  varied,  include  brass  boxes  in  which  the 
lime  for  Betel  chewing  was  kept.  Some  of  these  are 
circular,  and  others  are  pear-shaped,  many  being 
incised  and  inlaid  with  the  more  precious  metals. 
Betel-nut  cutters,  similar  to  those  from  other  parts 
of  India,  are  among  the  collectable  curios,  those 
from  Ceylon  being  especially  interesting,  for  they 
frequently  take  the  form  of  animals  or  of  winged 
flying  females.  The  objects  enumerated  do  not  by 
any  means  exhaust  the  metal  curios  from  India  and 
Ceylon,  but  they  are  among  the  chief  features  observ- 
able in  a large  collection,  in  the  gathering  together 
of  which  many  small  trinkets  and  perhaps  unique 
sundries  will  be  secured. 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  283 


Chinese  and  Japanese  Art. 

To  many  the  curios  from  China  and  Japan  are 
more  familiar  than  those  from  India  and  British 
Asiatic  possessions.  The  pottery  and  porcelain  of 
China  have  long  been  used  in  this  country,  and 
during  recent  years  other  objects  of  a curious  and 
antiquarian  nature  have  been  imported  in  large 
quantities  from  both  these  ancient  countries.  In 
shops  and  bazaars  the  metallic  wares  of  China  and 
Japan  have  been  much  popularized  too.  That 
China  has  a great  past  and  possessed  a civilization 
hundreds  of  years  before  similar  conditions  apper- 
tained in  Europe  is  well  known.  Collectors  of  the 
antique  go  back  in  their  search  after  specimens  of 
bronze  and  other  metals  to  those  produced  by  the 
artists  of  China  in  the  Han  Dynasty,  which  dates 
from  B.C.  216.  In  records  of  that  period,  concurrent 
with  accounts  of  pottery,  there  are  well  authenticated 
details  of  the  metal  cooking  vessels  then  in  common 
use.  There  were  utilitarian  bronzes  and  many 
beautiful  vases,  some  of  almost  the  same  designs 
as  the  concurrent  pottery.  There  were  cooking 
utensils  not  at  all  unlike  the  mediaeval  bronze  pots 
of  modern  Europe ; their  handles,  however,  were 
more  decorative,  often  taking  the  form  of  a 
dragon’s  head.  The  feet  of  these  ancient  cooking- 
pots  were  often  like  lions’  claws  or  eagles’  talons. 
Among  other  relics  of  that  period  are  quadrangular 
wine  jars,  some  of  the  rarer  types  being  decorated 
with  fishes,  in  the  drawing  of  which  the  Chinese 
artists  of  the  Han  Dynasty  were  very  clever. 
They  used  such  decorations  appropriately,  too 

14 


284  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


for  this  was  the  ornament  they  chose  on  fish 
kettles. 

A peculiarity  of  the  metal-work  of  the  Han  period 
was  the  dark  red  copper  which  seems  to  have  been 
used  concurrently  with  bronze.  When  we  note  that 
some  of  the  pottery  was  beautifully  formed  we  can 
quite  understand  that  the  bronzes  were  equally  well 
shaped,  for  the  metal-workers  would  not  be  behind 
the  potters  in  their  craftmanship.  Some  of  the  rarer 
bronze  tazzas  are  also  well  shaped  and  have  been 
carefully  moulded. 

The  chief  curios  coming  into  the  hands  of  collectors 
are  of  a somewhat  later  date  than  the  Han  Dynasty ; 
but  China  moves  on  slowly,  and  there  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  much  advance  or  change  for  many  cen- 
turies. The  metal-work  made  during  what  we  term 
mediaeval  days  in  Europe  was  often  copied  from 
familiar  objects  made  of  other  materials.  There  is 
a bronze  vase  made  in  the  Sung  Dynasty,  fashioned 
in  imitation  of  an  old  jar  tied  up  with  rope,  the  ring 
handles  being  technically  described  as  “ conventional 
heads  applique”;  this  vessel  measures  14^-in.  diameter 
at  the  shoulder  and  stands  o,\  in.  high.  It  is  difficult 
to  trace  where  such  pieces  come  from  ; it  is,  however, 
well  known  that  many  have  been  looted  from  the 
temples ; others,  probably  imitating  older  examples, 
are  mainly  of  nineteenth-century  workmanship. 

The  metal-work  which  comes  from  Japan  has 
reached  us  in  great  variety.  There  has  been  no  need 
for  the  traveller  or  collector  to  search  the  island  for 
curios  to  bring  over  to  this  country,  for  the  commercial 
instincts  of  a new  race  of  Japanese  merchants  have 


285 


FIG.  68. — BRONZE  FIGURE  (ONE  OF 


ORIENTAL  BRONZES  AND  BRASSES  287 


poured  out  a wealth  of  antiques,  collected  from  the 
native  villages  ; with  these  and  modern  imitations 
they  have  gladly  supplied  the  demand  of  the  Western 
world.  In  this  way  attention  has  been  called  to  the 
products  of  that  country  where  craftsmen  have  gone 
on  hammering  copper  and  brass,  and  inlaying  the 
metal  in  highly  decorated  patterns  in  silver  and  gold 
for  so  many  years. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  rare  temple 
pieces  and  sets  which  have  been  looted  or  purchased 
from  Asiatic  countries,  so  many  of  which  are  of  rare 
cloisson6  enamels.  Some  of  these  of  Japanese  origin 
are  mentioned  in  Chapter  XIV.  Of  the  minor 
bronzes,  replicas  of  temple  relics,  there  are  many 
beautiful  koros  or  incense  burners.  Other  bronzes 
serve  the  purpose  of  ornament  in  the  Western  coun- 
tries to  which  they  have  found  their  way.  In  Fig.  68 
is  shown  a beautiful  bronze.  The  sacred  carp  is  in- 
laid with  gold  and  silver  and  is  exceptionally  well 
finished.  The  pair,  of  which  it  is  one,  came  from 
Japan  about  thirty  years  ago,  and  are  of  much  finer 
workmanship  than  many  of  the  more  modern  replicas. 

Household  requisites  as  well  as  ornamental  treasures 
have  been  made  with  care  by  hammer  and  engraving 
tool  into  things  of  beauty  as  well  as  usefulness.  The 
household  requirements  of  the  Japanese  are  limited 
in  number,  but  in  the  entertainment  of  her  friends  the 
Japanese  lady  is  able  to  cause  envy  among  her 
Western  sisters  because  of  the  beauty  of  her  kettles 
and  brazier.  The  kettle  shown  in  Fig.  66  is  one  of  a 
toilet  set  of  hammered  brass,  engraved  with  badges 
and  foliage.  It  was  probably  produced  early  in  the 


288  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


nineteenth  century,  before  Western  commercial  ideas 
began  to  invade  the  workshops  of  Old  Japan. 
In  conjunction  with  such  kettles  (the  Japanese 
name  of  a kettle  is  yuwakashi)  metal  bowls  were 
used,  the  water  being  poured  over  the  hands  of 
the  fair  Japanese  and  her  guests  by  attendants, 
who  also  held  the  bowl  to  catch  the  dropping 
water. 

In  Old  Japan  there  was  much  patience  as  well  as 
skill,  and  the  methods  adopted  by  the  artists  of  those 
days  would  be  too  tedious  and  expensive  now  when 
the  merchants  buy  and  sell  and  compete  in  Western 
markets.  The  processes  by  which  the  beautiful 
bronze  objects  were  moulded  took  time,  and  the 
incising  and  inlays  could  never  be  paid  for  in  proper 
proportion  to  the  labour  expended  on  them.  The 
metals  of  which  Japanese  bronzes  were  made  con- 
sisted of  curious  alloys,  the  composition  of  which  was 
long  kept  a secret.  One  of  their  finest  brasses  is  known 
as  sinchu , consisting  of  ten  parts  of  copper  and  five  of 
zinc.  Another  very  beautiful  copper  is  called  shadko , 
in  which  splendid  hues  are  imparted  by  the  treatment 
of  acids  ; in  this  alloy  there  is  one  part  of  gold  to  ten 
of  copper,  to  which  is  attributable  the  splendid  colour- 
ing of  the  so-called  bronze.  Older  methods,  however, 
are  gradually  giving  way  to  more  economic  production 
on  Western  plans  and  formulae,  so  that  in  time  perhaps 
the  Eastern  and  Oriental  influence  and  characteristics 
of  Asiatic  bronzes,  so  charming  and  so  much  appre- 
ciated by  collectors,  may  diminish  if  not  disappear 
altogether. 


XIV 

IDOLS 

AND 

TEMPLE 

RELICS 


FIG.  69. — AMI  DA. 

FIG.  72. — VAJRA  DHARMA. 


INDIAN  IDOLS. 


FIG.  70. — A “ BLUE”  TARA. 

FIG.  71. — AMITAYUS. 

FIG.  73. — AMITAYUS. 


291 


CHAPTER  XIV 


IDOLS  AND  TEMPLE  RELICS 

Varied  shrines  and  many  idols — Indian  idols — Temple  vases  and 
ornaments. 


There  are  some  who  hold  it  to  be  a wicked  thing  to 
loot  the  temple  of  a heathen  deity,  and  regard  it  as 
sacrilege  to  ruthlessly  tear  down  the  idol  from  its 
shrine.  Others  glory  in  an  opportunity  of  proving 
the  powerlessness  of  the  man-created  idol  to  save  the 
temple  from  ruin  and  desecration.  Yet  there  are 
many  who  recognize  in  these  idols  of  wood,  stone, 
and  metal,  emblems  and  symbols  of  ancient  faiths  in 
which  there  may  be  a greater  reality,  and,  for  all  we 
can  tell,  potency,  to  those  who  look  beyond  the  mere 
shrine,  than  appears  at  first  sight.  Notwithstanding 
all  that,  the  multiplicity  of  gods  and  the  number  of 
so-called  deities  make  many  sceptical  about  the 
worship  of  their  devotees,  and  there  are  few  who 
feel  much  compunction  when  adding  such  objects  as 
metal  idols  to  their  curios — when  they  are  able  to 
secure  them  honestly. 

Varied  Shrines  and  Many  Idols. 

Needless  to  say  the  faiths  of  those  who  worship 

293 


294  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


“ unknown  gods/'  from  whatever  source  they  may 
have  come,  differ.  The  very  uncertainty  of  the 
religions,  which  admit  of  varied  deities,  has  fostered 
the  increase  of  ceremonies  and  the  change  in  rites, 
which,  added  to  local  folk-lore  and  myths  which  have 
gained  in  the  telling,  have  caused  new  idols  to  be  set 
up.  It  was  so  in  pagan  Greece  and  Rome,  and  it 
is  the  same  in  some  parts  of  the  world  to-day.  To 
these  causes  we  may  attribute  the  number  of  idols  of 
different  types,  or  the  same  idols  represented  with 
other  attributes,  which  the  collector  of  metal  meets 
with.  There  is  a strange  fascination  about  the  stories 
of  pagan  and  heathen  deities  and  their  influence  over 
men,  and  to  obtain  the  full  interest  and  delight  from 
such  a specialized  collection  the  collector  must 
become  a student  of  Eastern  and  other  religions  and 
priestcraft. 

The  temples  in  which  religious  rites  have  been, 
and  in  some  instances  are  still,  observed,  vary  in 
importance  just  as  the  associations  around  the 
cathedrals  and  ruined  abbeys  in  our  own  land  differ 
from  those  almost  absent  in  the  more  recently  erected 
churches.  The  wealthy  Indian,  not  unnaturally, 
employed  artificers  in  brass  to  make  models  of  the 
great  shrines,  and  some  of  these  rare  works  of  metallic 
art  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Indian  Museum.  Several 
are  of  eighteenth-century  workmanship,  among  them 
beautifully  modelled  temples  of  Krishna.  Incidentally 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  secular  buildings  have  been 
reproduced  too ; notably  there  is  a very  fine  model  of 
the  Palace  of  the  Winds  at  Jaypore,  Rajputana,  which 
was  presented  by  the  Maharajah  of  Jaypore. 


FIG.  74. — JAPANESE  PRICKET  CANDLESTICK  IN  THE  FORM 
OF  CRANE  AND  TORTOISE. 


(In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 


295 


IDOLS  AND  TEMPLE  RELICS  297 


Some  may  regard  the  collection  of  idols  as  a curious 
hobby  ; others  possibly  see  in  them  only  art  treasures 
to  be  valued  for  their  intrinsic  worth,  for  many  idols 
are  enriched  with  precious  stones  and  jewels  and  are 
overlaid  with  gold  and  silver.  Such  objects  occupy 
a different  place  from  the  cruder  idols  of  wood  and 
stone,  cut  and  carved  by  savage  races.  We  can  well 
understand  that  the  refined  worker  in  metals  spared 
no  pains  to  make  his  idol  or  fetish  beautiful  and 
something  to  be  admired. 

Indian  Idols. 

Of  Indian  idols  there  are  many : Buddha  is  so 
widely  held  in  esteem  that  it  is  no  wonder  that  so 
many  representations,  varying  in  size,  have  been 
produced.  The  favourite  position,  known  as  the 
“ Witness”  attitude,  is  that  with  which  collectors 
are  most  familiar. 

Indian  idols  are  of  many  forms,  among  the  com- 
moner varieties  being  those  of  Vishnu,  Lakshmi  the 
wife  of  Vishnu,  and  Siva.  Many  images  of  copper, 
afterwards  gilt,  come  from  Thibet  and  Nepal.  The 
curiosities  associated  with  the  Lamaist  worship  have 
become  familiar  of  late  years.  One  of  the  repre- 
sentations of  Amida,  holding  in  her  hand  the  tep- 
pattsu,  is  shown  in  Fig.  69.  A “blue”  Tara  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  70 ; Amitayus  is  shown  in  Fig. 
71;  and  Fig.  72  represents  Vajra  Dharma  holding 
the  dorge.  In  Fig.  73  Amitayus  is  again  shown 
holding  the  reliquary  and  wearing  a jewelled  collar. 
An  interesting  Lamaist  altar  ornament  is  a copper 
skull  bowl,  used  as  a receptacle  for  the  sacred  beer  or 


298  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


wine  of  life.  There  are  also  Thibetian  holy  water 
jugs,  beautifully  inlaid  with  silver.  In  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum  may  be  seen  a colossal  Buddha 
(Daibutsu)  of  sixteenth-century  workmanship,  which 
came  from  a Japanese  temple.  Appropriately  placed 
close  to  it  is  a massive  pair  of  lanterns  of  bronze, 
which  were  originally  a gift  to  the  temple  of 
Miyoshino-tenjin  by  the  feudal  lord  of  the  district. 
Most  of  these  temple  relics — idols  and  ornaments — 
were  made  of  a special  alloy  known  in  Japan  as  Kara 
kane , which  means  Chinese  metal,  from  which  it  may 
be  inferred  that  this  alloy  was  known  and  employed 
in  China  before  it  came  into  general  use  in  Japan. 

Temple  Vases  and  Ornaments. 

The  mystical  beliefs  of  China  are  chiefly  Buddhism, 
Confucianism,  and  Taoism,  to  which  should  be  added 
ancestor  worship,  and  in  connection  with  all  of  them 
there  are  special  objects  of  veneration,  which  we 
group  together  under  the  somewhat  generic  term 
of  “ temple  relics.” 

From  Japan  as  well  as  China  we  get  many  fine 
temple  sets.  Whence  come  they  ? some  may  ask. 
Perhaps  they  have  been  discarded  because  they  have 
been  replaced  with  newer  or  more  elaborate  ornaments, 
although  they  may  have  been  obtained  through  the 
cupidity  of  some  of  the  temple  attendants.  From 
whatever  sources  they  came  there  are  numerous 
examples  in  the  London  curio-shops  and  in  our 
museums.  The  crane  and  tortoise  have  long  been 
held  in  veneration  in  Japan.  The  tortoise  especially 
is  frequently  found  on  old  Chinese  pottery  and  metal- 


299 


FIG.  75.— JAPANESE  RITUAL  VASE.  FIG.^6.— SMALL  TWO-HANDLED  RITUAL  VASE.  FIG.  77.— CIRCULAR  VASE  ON  STAND, 


IDOLS  AND  TEMPLE  RELICS  301 


work,  as  well  as  being  fashioned  in  Corea  and 
Japan.  In  Fig.  74  there  is  a Japanese  pricket  candle- 
stick, in  the  form  of  a crane  and  tortoise,  of  eighteenth- 
century  workmanship,  and  it  evidently  formed  one  of 
a set  of  five  altar  pieces.  Some  of  the  altar  sets  gave 
special  prominence  to  two  flower  vases  as  part  of  the 
set,  of  somewhat  later  style  of  decoration  to  Fig.  90 ; 
it  was  probably  made  early  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
This  vase  was  formerly  used  in  a set  in  which  a figure 
of  Buddha  occupied  the  centre.  It  was  a common 
practice  to  hang  over  the  Buddhist  altars  lamps,  many 
of  which  are  to  be  seen  in  our  museums.  In  Fig.  75 
is  shown  a Japanese  ritual  vase,  intended  for  wine 
( ku ) ; it  is  of  square  shape,  with  cover  of  Kwei  and 
dragon  pattern, animaljeet  and  bosses  on  the  shoulders, 
and  bird-shaped  arris  on  the  lid,  the  inside  of  which 
is  inscribed  with  twelve  characters  ; the  patina  of  this 
vessel  ranges  from  deep  brown  to  bright  malachite- 
green.  Fig.  76  is  a smaller  ritual  vessel,  with  two 
handles  at  the  shoulder  and  one  meander  band  and 
knob.  The  vase  shown  in  Fig.  77,  with  dragon 
handles,  a beautifully  patinated  specimen,  shading 
from  brown  to  red  with  green  accretions,  is  a ritual 
tsui  or  vase  for  offering  corn.  These  remarkable 
relics  formed  part  of  a large  collection  dispersed 
recently  at  a well-known  London  salesroom.  Now 
and  then  less  important  pieces  come  under  the 
hammer,  and  it  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  secure  for 
a small  outlay  an  excellent  representative  collection 
of  these  deeply  interesting  objects  associated  with 
idol  worship. 


XV 

NATIVE 

METAL-WORK 


CHAPTER  XV 


NATIVE  METAL-WORK 


Outside  influences — Benin  bronzes — Other  African  curios. 


THERE  are  few  collections  of  copper  and  brass 
without  a fair  sprinkling  of  curiously  formed  and 
often  crude  objects  which  we  class  under  the  generic 
term  “ native  curios.”  There  is  much  that  is  of 
extreme  interest  in  the  work  of  the  smiths  and 
founders  of  races  possessing  but  little  apparent  touch 
with  civilized  nations  ; for  such  metal  objects  are 
true  guides  to  the  state  of  the  advancement  of  the 
peoples  of  the  countries  from  which  such  curios 
come.  We  delight  in  the  art  of  early  Eastern 
nations,  and  find  much  to  admire  in  the  almost 
barbaric  ornament  of  Asiatic  metal-workers  of 
mediaeval  and  even  later  days,  as  counted  by  the 
progress  made  by  European  artists  at  contemporary 
dates.  The  marvellous  skill  with  which  the  natives 
of  India  and  other  Asiatic  countries  incised  and 
inlaid  their  metal  wares  has  already  been  pointed 
out.  There  is,  however,  an  especial  charm  about 
the  metal-work  of  nations  we  are  apt  to  class  as 
“savage,”  or  at  least  untutored,  if  not  uncivilized. 

305 


306  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


And  we  would  not  have  it  otherwise,  for  it  is  from 
these  curios — metal  and  of  other  materials — that  we 
are  enabled  to  trace  the  influences  of  other  countries 
with  whom  those  races  or  tribes  have  had  dealings 
in  the  past.  We  are  to  some  extent  able  from  these 
antiquities  to  connect  the  links  in  the  chain  of 
nations,  and  from  the  characteristics  of  their  art  (?) 
to  settle  their  origin  and  affinity  to  other  races. 

Outside  Influences. 

The  Ethnological  Gallery  of  the  British  Museum 
is  one  of  the  finest  instructors.  The  silent  exhibits 
tell  the  observant  man  or  woman,  boy  or  girl,  much 
that  cannot  be  learned  from  book  knowledge.  In 
the  cases  in  that  gallery  are  many  objects  fashioned 
by  peoples  who  until  recently  were  in  their  Stone 
Age,  and  had  no  knowledge  of  the  outer  world. 
There  are  some  who  from  the  curios — old  and  new — 
have  apparently,  until  taught  their  use  by  travellers 
and  traders  from  the  far-off  West,  never  discovered 
the  value  of  metals.  Some  of  the  native  races — not 
a few  of  them  fellow-subjects  of  the  Empire — as  yet 
prefer  wood,  stone,  and  crude  pottery  vessels  and 
utensils  to  metal,  judging  from  the  very  limited  use 
of  the  few  brass  or  copper  objects  they  possess,  those 
few,  probably,  being  imported.  The  ethnology  of 
the  race  is  traced  in  these  relics,  especially  in  the 
really  old  ones.  In  a few  instances  by  way  of  con- 
trast, metal  objects,  although  so  limited,  are  con- 
spicuous. They  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  native 
countries  brought  under  the  influence  of  more 
advanced  peoples ; as  instanced  by  the  work  of  the 


NATIVE  METAL-WORK 


307 


Sinhalese,  the  natives  of  Ceylon,  who  early  came  into 
touch  with  the  metal-workers  of  India.  Another 
native  race  by  their  wealth  of  rare  metallic  curios* 
the  art  of  producing  which  they  have  lost,  are  shown 
to  be  a people  with  a past ; thus  it  is  with  the  tribes 
of  Southern  Nigeria  in  and  around  Benin  City.  On 
the  occasion  of  its  capture  by  the  British  in  1897, 
it  was  found  to  possess  a remarkable  store  of  wonder- 
ful bronzes,  evidently  of  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth 
centuries.  In  these  and  other  native  curios  the 
collector  revels,  and  in  their  study  finds  history, 
geography,  and  even  the  folk-lore  of  nations  revealed ; 
for  in  such  curios  there  are  stories  in  brass  of  social 
life,  religious  functions,  ceremonies,  and  sacrifices. 

The  Benin  Bronzes. 

A few  years  ago  very  many  bronzes  (nearly  pure 
copper)  were  sold  under  the  hammer.  They  were 
looted  from  Benin  City  during  the  war  which  ended 
in  the  country  in  and  around  the  city  being  taken 
by  the  British  troops,  and  eventually  incorporated  in 
Southern  Nigeria.  These  wonderful  bronzes  throw 
a light  upon  the  history  of  that  country,  and  tell 
of  a powerful  nation  far  advanced  in  the  art  of 
modelling  and  casting  metals  long  before  they  had 
come  into  close  touch  with  Western  influence.  This 
remarkable  people  who  possessed  so  much  wealth 
in  copper  and  in  ivory  have  long  gone ; their  descend- 
ants or  the  tribes  occupying  their  city  have  no 
knowledge  of  the  craft,  and  apparently  retained  these 
relics  of  barbaric  splendour  with  silent  awe.  The 
entire  series  of  bronze  panels  from  which  the  figures 

15 


308  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


so  cleverly  stand  out  in  bold  relief,  must  have 
presented  a wonderful  sight  to  the  British  soldiers 
as  they  entered  Benin.  The  collection  in  the  British 
Museum  was  sent  home  to  this  country  by  Sir  Ralph 
Moor,  K.C.M.G.,  H.M.  Commissioner  and  Consul- 
General  for  the  Niger  Coast  Protectorate.  It  is 
impossible  to  describe  their  beauty  or  the  details  of 
the  elaborate  modelling  of  the  dress,  arms,  and 
costumes  of  the  Benin  king  and  his  chiefs  and  officers 
as  they  existed  in  the  sixteenth  century.  There  is 
a model  of  the  king’s  house,  his  attendant  guards, 
high  officials,  a sword-bearer,  and  another  bearing  a 
ceremonial  axe.  Some  of  the  bronzes  represent 
musicians  playing  various  instruments,  and  others 
performing  all  kinds  of  functions.  The  bronze 
panels  of  fishes  and  animals  are  very  lifelike, 
especially  bulls,  crocodiles,  and  the  heads  of  oxen, 
even  the  twisted  cords  with  which  the  animals  were 
tethered  being  correctly  modelled.  The  bronzes 
representing  Europeans  are  exceptionally  valuable 
in  that  from  the  costumes  portrayed  the  date  of 
those  bronzes  has  been  fixed,  approximately.  The 
matchlocks  and  flint-guns  are  reproduced  with  the 
greatest  exactitude,  as  also  the  Egyptian  figures, 
copied  presumably  from  the  remains  of  Ancient 
Egypt,  with  which  these  metal-workers  were  evidently 
familiar. 

In  addition  to  the  panels  of  copper,  which  show 
marks  of  how  they  were  attached  to  the  walls,  were 
bronze  masks  or  warriors’  heads  which  served  as 
stands  for  the  splendidly  carved  tusks  of  ivory  also 
discovered  when  the  expedition  visited  that  country. 


NATIVE  METAL-WORK 


309 


There  are  many  minor  objects  in  bronze  which  show 
that  this  remarkable  civilization,  now  lost,  was  far 
advanced  in  the  arts. 

As  it  has  been  suggested  Benin  relics  are  not 
entirely  confined  to  museum  specimens,  and  collectors 
are  not  without  opportunities  of  securing  pieces. 

Many  of  the  early  tribes  of  Africa  had  knowledge 
of  metal-working,  although  some  have  lost  or 
neglected  to  practice  it. 

Other  African  Curios, 

Some  metal  curios  were  included  in  the  trophies 
brought  to  this  country  at  the  time  of  the  Ashanti 
Expedition,  among  the  rare  regal  metal-work  being 
an  old  brass  vase,  with  repoussd  decorations  and  a 
copper  dragon  handle.  It  was  discovered  behind 
the  house  of  King  Prempeh’s  aunt,  who  had  been 
acting  as  Regent.  Another  curio  discovered  in  the 
same  district  was  a brass  box  containing  gold  dust. 
Bells,  too,  have  been  brought  from  Ashanti ; one  in 
the  British  Museum  is  the  executioner’s  bell,  which 
was  rang  prior  to  an  execution. 

There  are  many  bronzes  from  Southern  Nigeria, 
especially  some  curious  ornaments  worn  by  the 
women.  Some  of  these  are  veritable  antiques  and 
were  found  buried  ; many  are  finely  patinated  and 
heavy.  Some  of  the  bangles  are  beautifully  formed 
and  highly  decorated  with  inlaid  enamels. 

Some  very  interesting  brass  castings  come  from 
Lagos,  not  at  all  unlike  the  Benin  modelling,  except 
that  they  are  in  brass  instead  of  pure  copper.  They 
include  figures  of  natives,  some  on  horseback,  others 


310  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


in  the  act  of  shooting  with  guns.  There  are  brass 
staves  of  office  carried  as  symbols  of  authority  by 
the  messengers  of  the  Oshogbo,  a native  secret 
society ; and  there  are  spoons,  knives  and  other 
domestic  sundries,  as  well  as  armlets  and  anklets 
of  copper  and  brass. 

From  north-east  Central  Africa  we  get  a little 
metal-work,  some  of  the  head-dress  ornaments 
being  enriched  with  circular  brass  plates,  on  which 
are  repoussd  decorations.  Among  the  curios  from 
this  district  in  the  British  Museum  are  several  ex- 
ceptional pieces,  one  being  a head-dress  or  helmet 
of  brass  with  circular  brass  ornaments. 

The  knives  used  in  ceremonials  are  often  very 
handsome.  There  is  a fine  executioner’s  knife  from 
north-east  Central  Africa,  with  brass  studs  all  over 
the  wood  handle.  Another  chief’s  knife,  which  came 
from  near  the  Stanley  Falls,  is  decorated  with  strips 
of  copper  and  brass. 

The  metal  castings  from  Central  Sudan,  repre- 
senting ostriches,  giraffes,  and  camels,  are  cleverly 
done,  and  with  bangles  and  anklets  make  up  an 
interesting  group. 

It  is  curious  how  valuable  finds  are  sometimes 
made  many  miles  from  the  locality  where  the  object 
was  made.  It  is  the  same  in  our  own  country,  for 
we  dig  and  find  a bronze  from  ancient  Rome, 
brought  over  by  the  conquering  armies  of  the 
Romans  when  Britain  was  brought  under  the 
Imperial  sway.  Our  armies  have  probably  left 
relics  behind  them  in  the  past  as  in  the  present, 
for  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  reminders  of  the 


NATIVE  METAL- WORK 


311 


Crusaders  and  others  to  be  found  even  in  Africa. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  finds  was  a large 
bronze  jug  and  cover  now  in  the  British  Museum  ; 
on  it  are  the  arms  of  Richard  II  of  England,  and 
two  mottoes  in  Lombardic  letters  : “ HE  THAT  WILL 
NOT  SPARE  WHEN  HE  MAY,  HE  SHALL  NOT  SPEND 
WHEN  HE  WOULD  ” is  one  ; the  other  reads  : “ DEEM 
THE  BEST  IN  EVERY  DOUBT  TILL  THE  TRUTH  BE 
TRIED  OUT.”  This  splendid  jug  was  found  in 
Ashanti  ; the  date  of  its  manufacture  was  about 
A.D.  1400. 

The  South  African  curios  in  brass  are  very 
limited  ; they  consist  chiefly  of  collars  and  armlets 
worn  by  the  women  of  Basutoland  and  Bechuana- 
land,  and  by  the  Kaffir  women  who  have  also 
girdles  of  brass  cleverly  formed. 

Although  by  no  means  numerous  and  of  limited 
variety,  a few  objects  of  native  workmanship  are 
worth  securing  if  only  to  compare  the  way  in  which 
natural  ingenuity  has  at  different  times  helped  the 
craftsman  and  enabled  him  to  work  even  metals 
without  any  instructions  from  nations  more  advanced 
in  their  use. 


XVI 


CONTINENTAL 
COPPER 
AND  BRASS 


315 


FIG.  78. — BRONZE  OVIFORM  EWER.  FIG.  7Q. — BRASS  EWER  WITH  ARTISTIC  HANDLE 


CHAPTER  XVI 


CONTINENTAL  COPPER  AND  BRASS 
Italian  bronzes — French  art — Dutch  brasswork — German  metal- work. 

The  Italian  renaissance  in  art  exercised  such  a 
wide  influence  upon  manufactured  goods  in  this 
and  other  countries  that  the  collector  of  antiques 
naturally  turns  to  the  achievements  of  the  artists 
in  metal  who  worked  in  Florence  and  Rome  for 
the  highest  ideals  he  can  seek.  In  this  he  is 
not  disappointed,  for  just  as  the  connoisseur  of 
ancient  art  finds  his  delight  in  the  bronzes  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  the  collector  of  more  modern 
art  sees  grace  and  beauty  combined  with  skilful 
grouping  in  Italian  craftsmanship.  European  in- 
fluence has  been  brought  to  bear  upon  the  metal- 
work of  the  world  at  different  times,  but  it  has 
not  always  come  from  the  same  country.  At 
different  periods  the  metal-workers  of  certain  locali- 
ties appear  to  have  made  their  peculiar  charac- 
teristics take  precedence  of  others.  In  most  of  the 
European  countries  quite  distinct  styles  and  even 
unique  treatment  of  metals  have  been  noticeable  ; 
so  much  so  that  our  museums  to-day  contain 

317 


318  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


groups  of  metal-work  having  little  or  no  affinity 
to  one  another,  although  coming,  perhaps,  from 
towns  not  far  removed  in  point  of  geographical 
position.  The  collector  recognizes  as  distinct  the 
bronzes  of  Italy ; the  screens,  candlesticks,  and 
ecclesiastical  metal-work  of  Spain ; the  beaten 
bronze,  champleve  enamels,  and  the  decorative  brass 
of  the  Empire  period  of  France  ; the  eighteenth- 
century  Dutch  brasswork ; the  metal  forged  and 
cast  in  Germany,  and  the  decorative  copper  and 
brass  of  Turkey  showing  such  distinctly  Oriental  in- 
fluence in  Saracenic  touch.  To  study  all  these  rival 
styles  at  their  best  the  collector,  however  large  his 
private  collection,  must  perforce  visit  either  one  of 
the  more  important  Continental  museums  or  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  at  South  Kensington, 
where  so  many  cases  are  filled  with  Continental 
works  of  art  in  gold,  silver,  and  the  baser  metals. 
Local  museums  rarely  possess  a selection  large 
enough  for  comparative  purposes.  The  loan  ex- 
hibits from  the  national  collection,  carefully  selected 
as  representative  specimens,  are  very  helpful,  and 
many  such  loan  cases  strengthen  local  exhibits  and 
add  interest  to  them.  In  the  United  States  of 
America  public  museums  are  well  arranged  with 
the  view  of  showing  the  metal-work  of  different 
countries  at  varied  periods,  and  many  of  them  are 
peculiarly  rich  in  exhibits  of  domestic  metal-work 
which  was  taken  over  in  the  early  days  from  Europe. 

As  a guide  to  curators  and  others  wishful  to 
secure  the  right  kind  of  exhibits  it  may  be  useful 
to  mention  the  contents  of  a case  on  view  at  a 


CONTINENTAL  COPPER  AND  BRASS  319 


South  coast  town  public  library  recently.  There 
were  some  beautiful  Italian  bronzes  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  a damascened  candlestick 
from  Venice,  a Florentine  statuette,  a handsome 
cabinet  handle  chased  with  foliated  ornament,  a 
bronze  mask  of  Pan,  a table  lamp  stand  with 
winged  lions  at  the  base,  and  a handsome  ewer, 
the  body  of  which  was  ornamented  with  foliage, 
around  it  figures  representing  the  triumph  of 
Bacchus,  a typical  seventeenth-century  specimen. 
Among  the  minor  objects  in  that  case  were  vases 
from  many  countries,  door  knockers,  and  a few 
examples  of  Dutch  metal-work,  decorative  and 
artistic. 

Italian  Bronzes. 

The  metal-workers  from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth 
centuries,  when  so  many  decorative  bronzes  were  being 
made  for  St.  Peter’s  and  Italian  churches,  derived 
their  inspirations  from  Byzantium,  hence  those 
early  works  were  often  inlaid  with  silver  and  gold, 
and  were  quite  different  from  those  of  later  date. 
Art  developed,  and  gradually  a more  distinctive 
character  was  given  to  the  bronze  gates  and 
candelabra  which  were  made  with  such  consum- 
mate skill.  One  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  that 
period  was  the  great  candelabrum  in  Milan  Cathe- 
dral, wrought  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Its  height 
is  14  ft.,  and  it  has  seven  branches  for  candles, 
the  stem  being  supported  by  four  winged  dragons. 
It  is  one  mass  of  marvellous  scrollwork,  relieved 
by  the  introduction  of  figures,  each  one  of  which 


320  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


is  perfect  in  itself — a study  of  expression  and  char- 
acter. Casts  of  these  remarkable  pieces  of  metal- 
work may  be  seen  at  South  Kensington. 

In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the 
Florentine  artists  worked.  It  was  then  that 
statues  in  bronze  were  sculptured  by  Verrocchio, 
Donatello,  and  others.  A century  later  the  won- 
derful candlesticks  in  the  Certosa,  near  Pavia,  and 
in  the  cathedral  at  Padua,  were  made.  It  was 
about  that  time  that  Venetian  metal-workers  were 
fashioning  so  much  that  was  beautiful  in  domestic 
utensils  and  the  minor  church  ornaments. 

From  that  time  onward  collectable  brasses  were 
made,  and  after  long  years  of  use  they  passed  into 
the  category  of  antiques,  rendered  beautiful  by  their 
artistic  merits,  and  possibly  by  the  touch  of  age. 
Even  then  there  was  an  Oriental  look  about  many 
of  the  designs,  but  it  seldom  intrudes,  and  does 
not  spoil  the  effect  of  the  forms  and  style  so  clearly 
Venetian.  Such  vessels  were  chiefly  made  for  the 
then  wealthy  merchants  of  the  city,  and  often  their 
arms  were  incorporated  into  the  design.  Fig.  78  is 
a bronze  oviform  ewer  made  in  Venice  about  1530. 
Another  beautiful  vase  is  shown  in  Fig.  79.  Other 
objects  much  favoured  were  candlesticks,  hand- 
warmers,  and  perfume  sprinklers,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  more  strictly  utilitarian. 

The  Spanish  metal-workers  do  not  appear  to  have 
developed  a very  well-defined  school  of  metallic  art 
of  their  own.  They  were  especially  noted  for  their 
highly  ornamental  jewellery ; in  the  common  metals 
they  were  influenced  by  Italy,  and  to  some  extent 


CONTINENTAL  COPPER  AND  BRASS  321 


Germany.  It  is  said  that  the  finest  piece  of  work 
accomplished  in  the  country  was  the  great  six- 
teenth-century candelabrum  or  tenebrarium  in 
Seville  Cathedral,  the  work  of  Bart.  Morel  in  1562. 

French  Art. 

Connoisseurs  of  the  fine  arts  naturally  regard 
enamels  of  Limoges  as  the  greatest  achievements 
of  the  country  (see  Chapter  XVIII).  There  is,  how- 
ever, much  to  admire  in  the  early  unadorned  metal- 
work, especially  that  made  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries  — effigies  in  beaten  copper, 
some  portions  of  which  were  usually  adorned  by 
coloured  “champleve”  enamel.  They  were  after- 
wards desired  by  Englishmen,  and  some  good 
examples  of  “ imported  ” effigies  are  to  be  seen,  a 
notable  example  being  one  on  the  tomb  of  William 
de  Valence  in  Westminster  Abbey,  erected  about 
1296.  Of  domestic  metal-work  there  are  not  many 
early  pieces.  In  Fig.  82  is  shown  a cup  or  ewer  of 
brass  with  artistic  handle  and  spout  ornamented  with 
a grotesque  mouth;  the  date  assigned  to  it  is  1570. 
It  may  be  seen  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 
where  also  is  deposited  a fine  seventeenth-century 
ewer  or  tankard  with  plain  cylindrical  body  and  a 
deep  and  long  spout  with  fancy  handle  (see  Fig.  81). 
There  is  also  a trumpet  of  brass,  dated  1738,  in  the 
same  gallery ; it  has  upon  it  the  owner’s  monogram, 
“ S.M.A.,”  ensigned  with  a count’s  coronet  and  crest. 

Dutch  Brasswork. 

The  brasswork  from  Holland,  largely  imported 


322  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


into  this  country  at  the  commencement  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  although  decorative,  cannot  be 
claimed  as  artistic.  Most  of  the  objects  are  strictly 
utilitarian,  and  the  ornament  stiff  and  formal ; they 
were  hammered  by  hand,  an  effective  finish  being 
made  by  small  punches,  repouss^  work  being  occa- 
sionally added.  Fig.  80,  which  represents  one  of 
the  larger  pieces,  illustrates  a highly  ornamental 
cistern  with  cover  and  tap.  Its  shape  is  semi- 
circular, a dome-shaped  back  acting  as  a hanger  ; 
that  as  well  as  the  perforated  grille  under  the 
cistern  being  ornamented.  The  chief  ornament 
consists  of  star  devices,  the  points  of  which  are 
united  together  by  curved  lines  composed  of  small 
straight  indentations.  In  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  there  is  a Dutch  foot-warmer,  the  sides 
of  which  are  ornamented  with  repoussd  panels  of 
flowers  and  circular  bosses ; in  the  centre  of  the 
top,  which  is  slightly  curved,  is  a medallion  en- 
graved “ I.W.H.M.  1733,”  surrounded  by  open-work 
decoration  and  floral  scrolls  arranged  in  geome- 
trical patterns,  on  either  side  of  which  are  birds. 

The  brass  milkcans  used  by  modern  milk  sellers, 
and  the  beautifully  ornamented  churns  and  milk 
perambulators  seen  in  some  neighbourhoods,  are 
not  altogether  new  or  the  outcome  of  modern  ad- 
vertisement. In  Holland  brass  ornament  has  been 
used  on  tinware  for  many  years,  and  some  very 
quaint  old  milkcans  and  dairy  utensils  in  shining 
polished  brass  are  met  with  by  collectors  who  visit 
Holland.  The  milkcans  of  that  country,  or  perhaps 
more  correctly  large  bowls,  in  which  milk  and  cream 


FIG.  8o.— DUTCH  ORNAMENTAL  BRASS  CISTERN. 


FIG.  8l. — FRENCH  EWER  OR  TANKARD  WITH  FANCY  HANDLE. 

FIG.  82. — FRENCH  EWER  WITH  GROTESQUE  MOUTH  (SIXTEENTH  CENTURY). 
{In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


828 


CONTINENTAL  COPPER  AND  BRASS  325 


are  served  have  double  handles,  and  make  ex- 
tremely handsome  flower-bowls  or  fern-pots  on 
the  table,  although  perhaps  collectors  would  con- 
sider such  a desecration  an  improper  use  for  a 
genuine  antique.  Many  of  the  chestnut  roasters, 
skimmers,  and  brass  chimney  ornaments  used  in 
England  in  the  eighteenth  century  came  from 
Holland.  The  artists  of  that  country  were  famous 
for  the  characteristic  Dutch  scenes  engraved  on 
their  metal-work,  just  as  they  were  for  their  tiles 
with  quaint  windmills  and  pictures  of  peasants  in 
native  costume  on  them.  So  famous  has  the  collec- 
tion of  these  brasses  become  that  much  modern 
metal-work,  copies  of  genuine  antiques,  has  been 
sent  over  for  sale  in  London  curio-shops.  Some 
of  these  reproductions  are  excellent  copies  ; others 
are  “ too  new  ” and  would  scarcely  deceive  the 
amateur.  Caution  should  be  observed,  especially 
when  buying  “ old  time  ” fire-brasses,  knockers  and 
trivets. 

German  Metal- Work. 

Curios,  as  well  as  modern  antiques  “ made  in 
Germany,”  are  not  always  labelled  as  such  ; there  is, 
however,  a distinctly  German  look  about  old  metal- 
work from  that  country.  Elaborate  and  massive  with 
its  wealth  of  floral  embellishment,  some  of  the 
German  metal-work  of  early  days  stands  out  con- 
spicuously. Some  elaborate  cast  bronze  gates  and 
door  furniture  enriched  the  churches  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries.  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg 
have  always  been  famous  centres  for  artistic  metal 


326  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


work,  and  in  those  towns  many  objects  large  and 
small  have  been  made.  Among  minor  works  are  the 
very  handsome  lock  plates  and  cases.  The  shapes 
of  domestic  utensils,  especially  of  ewers,  were  very 
quaint.  There  is  a German  aquamanile  or  ewer  in 
the  form  of  an  animal,  embodying  a lion  and  stag, 
along  with  several  others  equally  as  curious,  in  the 
British  Museum.  Nuremberg  contributes  to  our 
national  collection  a variety  of  hand  wash-basins 
in  brass  ; the  earlier  examples  being  richly  orna- 
mented with  engravings  typifying  different  virtues 
and  vices  ; St.  George,  the  patron  saint  of  England, 
also  figures  on  some  pieces.  Turkish  metal- work 
includes  copper  ewers,  chased  and  decorated  with 
enamels,  mostly  with  handles  and  spouts,  some  of 
the  sets  or  pairs  consisting  of  ewer  ( ibrik ) and 
basin  ( tisht ).  These  copper  vessels  are  sometimes 
embossed  with  scale  ornaments.  There  are  braziers 
and  some  vessels  of  bulbous  form,  mostly  of  bronze, 
and  now  and  then  Turkish  collapsible  lanterns  of 
brass  with  pierced  decorations  are  met  with. 


XVII 


SUNDIALS, 

CLOCKS, 

AND  BRASS 
INSTRUMENTS 


CHAPTER  XVII 


SUNDIALS,  CLOCKS,  AND  BRASS  INSTRUMENTS 

The  mystery  of  dialling — Some  old  dials — Antique  clocks — Old  watches 
— The  weather — Scientific  instruments. 


The  modern  man  can  scarcely  realize  what  it  must 
have  been  in  this  England  of  ours  when  clouds 
obscured  the  sun,  and  thick  mists  drew  a veil  over 
the  shadow  cast  by  the  gnomon,  before  clocks  were 
known.  The  time  of  day  was  of  less  importance 
when  the  sundial  on  the  church  tower,  or  on  a pillar 
erected  at  some  convenient  place,  had  to  be  consulted, 
when  the  sun  shone  it  is  true,  but  even  then  many 
must  have  inwardly  fretted  and  rebelled  against  the 
uncertainty.  Reader,  have  you  ever  spent  a day 
away  from  public  clocks  in  the  country  when  the 
sky  was  overcast  without  a watch  in  your  pocket  ? 
If  not,  do  it  now,  and  the  result  will  be  startling. 
It  will  create  a sympathetic  touch  with  the  past, 
and  bring  vividly  to  mind  the  trials  of  patience  which 
had  to  be  endured  when  under  such  conditions  in- 
scriptions on  dials  were  read,  but  no  clear  line  marked 
the  onward  march  of  Sol. 


330  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


The  Mystery  of  Dialling. 

Dialling  is  a science  which  few  except  experts 
understand  now ; the  antiquary  takes  little  note 
of  it  as  he  gazes  upon  the  old  dial  plate  and  makes 
out  the  inscription  upon  it.  The  collector  gladly 
buys  the  brass  dial  with  its  quaint  lettering  and 
division  marks  without  even  knowing  where  it  came 
from,  or  what  kind  of  stone  column  or  pillar  it 
originally  capped.  Yet  there  is  far  more  interest 
in  an  old  sundial  installed  in  a modern  garden 
amidst  reconstructed  old-world  surroundings  when 
the  origin  of  the  relic  is  known. 

We  have  no  record  of  the  type  of  sundial  referred 
to  in  Isaiah  xxxviii,  8 : “ Behold,  I will  bring  again 

the  shadow  of  the  degrees  which  is  gone  down  on 
the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz,  ten  degrees  backward.”  There 
are,  however,  records  of  the  sundial  of  the  Chaldean 
astronomer  Perosus,  who  lived  about  340  B.C.  It 
consisted  of  a hollow  hemisphere  placed  with  its 
rim  horizontal,  having  a head  or  globule  fixed  so  that 
as  long  as  the  sun  shone  above  the  horizon  the  shadow 
of  the  head  fell  on  the  inside  of  the  hemisphere. 

In  more  recent  days  the  making  and  fixing  of 
the  dial  with  its  gnomon  was  carried  out  on  fixed 
principles,  and  there  is  now  no  difficulty  about  such 
an  installation  provided  that  the  same  astronomical 
conditions  are  observed.  (For  rules  governing  dial- 
ling, see  Glossary.) 

Some  Old  Dials. 

The  pattern  known  as  the  garden  dial  is  that  com- 
monly met  with  (for  the  large  dials  once  fixed  on 


FIG.  83. — EARLY  DIALS — ON  THE  LEFT  AN  ARMILLARY  DIAL  ; IN  THE  CENTRE 
PILLAR  DIAL  ; AND  ON  THE  RIGHT  A RING  DIAL. 

(In  the  British  Museum . ) 


FIG.  84. — CURIOUS  OLD  MICROSCOPE,  MADE  IN  1780. 
(In  the  Municipal  Museum , Hull.) 


881 


SUNDIALS 


333 


church  towers  and  in  public  places  rarely  come  into 
the  market) ; and  the  old  dial  plates  seen  in  curio- 
shops  have  come  from  such  pillars.  Charles  Dickens 
had  a fine  old  sundial  in  his  garden  at  Gad’s  Hill 
Place,  and  it  has  often  been  copied.  The  globe  dial, 
set  on  suitable  pillars,  has  been  made  frequently  for 
modern  antique  gardens.  An  enterprising  maker  of 
dials  purchased  the  beautiful  balustrades  of  old  Kew 
Bridge  when  it  was  removed  a few  years  ago,  and 
capping  them  with  replicas  of  old  dials — in  some 
cases  with  genuine  antiques — produced  excellent 
examples  of  the  old  type  of  garden  sundial.  Similar 
dials,  more  imposing  in  size,  are  met  with  in  curious 
and  yet  very  suitable  places  by  motorists,  cyclists, 
and  others  when  touring  in  the  country.  A charming 
Elizabethan  relic  is  the  stone  bridge  across  the 
River  Wye  in  the  village  of  Wilton,  near  Ross.  On 
the  north  wall  of  the  parapet  is  a stone  pillar 
surmounted  by  a sundial  having  four  faces — an  in- 
teresting landmark  and  often  admired ; and  when 
the  sun  shines  on  it  the  traveller  invariably  pulls  out 
his  watch  and  compares  it  with  the  shadow  of  the 
gnomon.  There  were  once  many  famous  dials  in  situ 
in  London  ; most  of  them  are  gone ; there  are  some, 
however,  readily  seen,  like  the  noted  pillar  dial  in 
the  Temple  and  that  on  the  front  of  one  of  the 
old  buildings  in  Lincoln’s  Inn. 

Of  other  forms  of  dials,  the  eccentricities  of  the 
horologists  they  might  be  called,  there  are  the 
“ goblet  ” dials  in  the  form  of  a cup,  the  hour-lines 
being  engraved  on  the  interior ; pillar  dials  which 
are  cylinders  with  movable  gnomons ; the  quadrant, 


334  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


in  the  use  of  which  the  altitude  of  the  sun  is  taken 
through  pierced  sights,  the  time  being  shown  on 
curved  hour-lines  by  means  of  a plumb-line  hanging 
from  the  angle  ; and  the  ring  dials,  which  were  very 
popular  in  England  down  to  the  year  1800.  In 
Fig.  83  are  shown  earlier  dials  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries.  On  the  left  there  is  an  armil- 
lary dial  by  F.  Culpeper,  of  London.  In  the  middle 
there  is  a pillar  dial  dated  1567,  and  on  the  right 
of  the  figure  a ring  dial  made  by  Humphrey  Cole 
in  1 575,  all  three  important  types.  Perhaps  one 
of  the  chief  delights  of  the  study  of  sundial  plates 
is  to  read  and  make  out  the  different  mottoes  and 
legends  on  them — most  of  them  relating  to  the  flight 
of  time,  some  alluding  to  man’s  duties  which,  when 
neglected,  can  never  be  made  up,  for  “Time  and 
tide  wait  for  no  man.” 

Another  type  of  dial  is  the  portable  one,  in  which 
form  dials  or  pocket  clocks,  as  they  were  sometimes 
called,  can  be  collected — and  they  are  generally  of 
brass,  some  being  very  decorative. 

Antique  Clocks. 

There  is  no  intermediate  stage  between  the  general 
use  of  clocks  and  watches  and  sundials,  for  their 
use  overlaps.  We  have  but  to  look  at  many  an 
old  church  tower  on  which  is  to  be  seen  the  dial 
still  operative — for  sun  and  gnomon  fail  not— and 
the  clock  which  has  told  the  time  for  many  years. 
Both  were  probably  working  before  pocket  clocks 
or  watches  became  general  and  timepieces  were  to 
be  found  on  the  mantelpiece  or  sideboard. 


CLOCKS 


335 


Brass  was  used  from  the  commencement  of  clock- 
making for  wheels  and  dials ; and  wonderfully,  too, 
the  early  clockmakers  cut  and  carved  the  metal  into 
the  required  form  and  gauged  the  works  with  ac- 
curacy. Some  may  be  familiar  with  that  wonderful 
astronomical  clock  in  Wimborne  Minster,  made  in 
1220  by  Peter  Lightfoot,  a monk  of  Glastonbury, 
who  also  constructed  a clock  for  Wells  Cathedral. 
In  it,  according  to  the  early  belief  that  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars  revolved  round  the  earth,  the  sun  travels 
its  appointed  circuit  every  twenty-four  hours,  and 
by  its  position  marks  the  time. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  clock  there  have  been  many 
marked  stages.  The  clock  when  first  devised  was 
a great  stride  from  the  sundial,  the  beautiful  plates 
of  which  have  already  been  described.  Progress 
followed,  and  in  a century  or  two  clocks  with  wheels 
and  complicated  mechanism,  which  when  once  set 
going  and  wound  up  periodically  told  the  time 
with  exactitude,  enabled  the  populace  to  know  the 
time  of  day  even  when  the  sun  was  not  shining. 
That  was  the  age  of  decorative  art,  and  many  of 
the  brass  plates  and  dials  were  magnificent  in  their 
engravings,  glorious  in  their  beautiful  old  fretwork, 
and  rich  in  brass  cherubims  and  emblems  of  Old 
Father  Time.  Moving  figures  were  in  the  early 
days  regarded  as  ideal  attractions  in  clocks.  The 
two  old  figures  which  strike  the  hour  and  go  through 
some  quaint  evolutions  over  the  clock  which  for 
many  years  has  been  a great  attraction  in  Cheapside, 
are  typical  of  the  figures  which  in  miniature  might 
have  been  seen  playing  on  brass  gongs  and  chiming 


336  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


bells  in  many  towns  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  They  were  in  abundance  in  Norwich  and 
towns  in  the  eastern  counties,  seeming  to  reflect 
the  old  Flemish  cities  on  the  Continent,  where  they 
are  even  now  fairly  common.  Collectors  are  very 
enthusiastic  in  their  search  for  genuine  “ Cromwell  ” 
or  lantern  clocks.  A few  years  ago  they  might  have 
been  found  discarded  on  the  old  metal  rubbish-heaps 
of  the  clockmaker.  To-day  these  clocks,  all  brass 
in  their  construction,  are  polished  bright,  set  going 
once  more,  and  treated  with  care  ; good  specimens 
changinghands  for  sums  varying  from  eight  to  fifteen 
pounds.  Originally  they  were  usually  placed  on  a 
bracket,  over  which  was  often  a wooden  hood  to  pro- 
tect the  clock.  Then  came  a hinged  glass  door, 
and  in  that  we  have  the  origin  of  the  “ grandfather  ” 
with  enlarged  dial  and  rich  oak  or  mahogany  case 
reaching  down  to  the  ground. 

Those  who  wish  to  study  the  beautiful  dials  and 
engraved  faces  of  clocks  and  watches  in  order  that 
they  may  realize  the  difference  in  the  products  of 
makers  during  the  last  few  centuries,  should  visit 
the  splendid  collection  in  the  Guildhall  Museum, 
loaned  by  the  Clockmakers’  Company.  The  work 
of  the  old  clockmakers  was  that  of  the  very  best. 
It  was  made  to  last,  and  the  metal  they  chose  for 
their  operations  appears  to  have  been  very  suitable 
for  the  purpose.  In  evidence  of  the  lasting  quality 
of  old  brass  works,  a well-known  writer  has  put 
forward  the  interesting  story  of  a chamber  clock 
presented  by  Henry  VIII  to  Anne  Boleyn  on  their 
wedding  day.  It  found  its  way  into  the  Strawberry 


FIG.  85. — ENGRAVED  POCKET  CLOCK. 


337 


CLOCKS 


339 


Hill  collection  of  Horace  Walpole,  and  at  the  famous 
sale  of  those  interesting  curios  and  souvenirs  of  great 
persons  that  noted  minister  had  gathered  together, 
it  was  purchased  for  £100  by  the  late  Queen  Victoria. 
Harrison  Ainsworth  says : “ This  token  of  endless 
affection  remains  the  same  after  three  centuries  ; but 
four  years  after  it  was  given,  the  object  of  Henry’s 
eternal  love  was  sacrificed  on  the  scaffold.  The 
clock  still  goes,  but  surely  it  should  have  been 
stopped  for  ever  when  Anne  Boleyn  died  ! ” 

The  advent  of  table  clocks  came  with  the  discovery 
of  the  use  of  a mainspring  by  the  Nuremberg  clock- 
makers  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  British 
Museum  there  is  a clock  in  the  form  of  a ship  made 
for  the  Emperor  Rudolph  II  in  1581.  There  are  many 
other  fine  examples  of  curiously  designed  clocks, 
including  a water  clock  by  Finchet,  of  Cheapside, 
and  a French  astronomical  clock  with  astrolabe,  and 
others  with  automatic  figures  on  view  there,  as  well 
as  very  remarkable  types  in  the  collection  of  clock 
dials  and  watches  given  to  the  Museum  by  the 
late  Mr.  Octavius  Morgan. 

The  early  clocks,  the  dials  of  which  were  of  brass, 
had  only  one  finger,  for  the  minute-hand  was  not 
known  until  1670,  and  the  second  finger  a much 
later  invention. 

In  Fig.  85  is  a typical  example  of  a brass  engraved 
watch  clock  face  and  dial,  which  has  a perforated 
hinged  cover  and  is  exceptionally  well  engraved. 

Old  Watches. 

Watches  were  costly  in  the  days  when  so  much 


340  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


time  was  expended  on  their  manufacture.  Those 
were  the  days  of  good  workmanship  in  which  watch- 
makers excelled.  They  put  much  labour  into  the 
ornamentation  of  the  works,  “ watch-clocks,”  and  dial 
plates,  so  many  of  which  were  beautifully  engraved, 
tooled  with  great  skill,  and  cleverly  perforated.  The 
dials  were  in  early  days  unprotected,  hence  the  need 
of  a case,  often  of  brass,  and  when  made  of  some 
other  material  were  frequently  ornamented  with  brass 
inlay.  It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  that  glass  or  crystal  covers  were 
invented  ; that  was  about  the  time,  too,  when  the 
enamelling  of  dials  came  into  vogue. 

The  pocket  watch  brought  with  it  fobs,  chains, 
and  watch-keys  or  winders,  mostly  of  brass,  which 
should  not  be  overlooked.  In  a representative  col- 
lection there  are  crank  keys  similar  to  large  clock 
winders,  but,  of  course,  made  in  miniature.  Then 
after  various  developments  brass  and  Pinchbeck  fob 
keys  came  into  vogue,  and  later  still  ornamental 
keys  with  and  without  the  addition  of  stones,  the 
majority  being  made  in  brass.  A number  of  these 
little  objects  can  still  be  collected  quite  cheaply,  and 
nicely  mounted  make  a very  interesting  addition  to 
the  more  ornamental  side  of  brass  metal-work. 

Forecasting  the  Weather. 

The  weather  has  found  men  a subject  for  discussion 
and  given  them  opportunities  of  speaking  a pleasant 
word  of  comradeship  when  meeting  in  the  country 
or  in  town.  To  comment  upon  its  fickleness  has 
become  as  common  a mode  of  salutation  as  passing 


BRASS  INSTRUMENTS 


341 


the  time  of  day.  The  topic  is  an  ancient  one  and 
the  interest  in  it  has  been  sustained,  for  to  gauge 
the  coming  changes  has  taken  the  attention  of  men 
from  the  earliest  times.  To  study  the  fleeting  cloud, 
to  note  the  coming  storm  by  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  or  to  notice  the  damp  in  the  air  as  the  mist 
rises  and  is  wafted  over  the  fields,  has  always  been 
a favourite  occupation.  It  was  so  before  the  day 
of  barometers  and  scientific  instruments,  and  it  is 
equally  so  by  those  who  prefer  the  pronouncement 
of  the  weather  prophet  rather  than  the  barometer 
gauge.  Galileo  is  said  to  have  invented  the  thermo- 
meter, but  it  was  his  pupil  Torricelli,  who  dis- 
covered the  barometer.  His  townsmen  in  Faenza, 
in  the  north  of  Italy,  some  years  ago  erected  a 
monument  to  his  memory,  putting  up  the  biggest 
barometer  known.  In  common  with  other  scientific 
instruments  the  barometer  has  afforded  opportuni- 
ties to  the  worker  in  metal  and  to  the  art  designer, 
for  like  the  clock  case  it  has  been  made  a thing  of 
beauty  as  well  as  one  of  use.  The  very  remark- 
able barometer  illustrated  in  Fig.  86  is  an  elaborate 
work  of  the  brassfounder  and  exceedingly  ornate. 
It  is  a very  exceptional  piece,  but  there  are  other 
barometers  of  considerable  beauty  in  the  hands  of 
collectors  of  old  bronze  and  metal-work. 

Some  of  the  old  scientific  instruments  are  very 
clumsy  looking  when  compared  with  modern  work- 
manship. About  them  it  is  true  there  is  a quaint 
beauty  and  a silent  tribute  to  the  skill  and  ingenuity 
of  early  inventors,  those  who  were  but  groping,  per- 
haps blindly,  in  the  initial  stages  of  an  undeveloped 


342  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


science.  Scientists  always  take  a delight  in  the 
instruments  which  their  predecessors  have  used,  and 
when  they  realize  by  comparison  the  difficulties  the 
early  pioneers  had  to  contend  with  on  account  of 
the  inefficient  instruments  in  their  possession  they 
wonder  at  the  advance  that  particular  science  made 
in  their  day. 

In  Fig.  84  we  illustrate  a curious  old  microscope 
and  case,  made  about  the  year  1780.  It  is  on  a 
mahogany  stand,  in  which  is  a drawer  containing 
four  magnifying  powers.  It  formerly  belonged  to 
a Mr.  Charles  Sherborne  and  is  now  in  the  Hull 
Museum,  where,  as  the  connecting  link  between  the 
older  type  and  the  modern,  there  is  another  interesting 
microscope  made  some  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago.  The 
engineer,  mechanic,  and  scientist  find  much  pleasure 
in  the  curios  which  were  associated  with  their  pro- 
fessions in  former  days,  and  delight  in  the  possession 
of  “old  brass”  which  seems  to  bring  them  nearer  to 
the  great  men  who  years  ago  laid  the  foundations  on 
which  present-day  advance  has  been  built. 

Engineers  have  been  very  skilful  in  creating  models 
of  engines  and  machinery  with  which  they  have  been 
familiar,  and  in  reproducing  in  miniature  replicas  of 
noted  engines  which  have  been  used  for  practical 
purposes.  These  little  models,  some  of  which  were 
made  more  than  a hundred  years  ago,  in  days  when 
steam  power  was  but  in  its  infancy,  have  been  very 
valuable  to  engineers  to-day,  in  that  they  provide  them 
with  actual  models  of  old-time  engines,  the  details  of 
construction  of  which  might  otherwise  have  been  lost. 
In  one  of  the  museums  at  South  Kensington  there 


FIG.  86. — A HANDSOME  BRONZE  BAROMETER. 


343 


BRASS  INSTRUMENTS 


345 


are  many  of  these  scientific  and  mechanical  models  in 
brass,  some  of  them  working  on  the  penny-in-the-slot 
principle,  so  that  visitors  can  by  the  expenditure  of  a 
few  coppers  set  in  motion  any  machine  they  are  in- 
terested in,  and  so  judge  of  the  actual  effects  of  old- 
time  inventions  as  illustrated  by  models  which  have 
been  made  to  scale. 

In  addition  to  working  models  of  large  objects 
there  are  some  remarkably  small  models  which  are 
stored  and  treasured  by  collectors.  Some  are  so 
small  and  minute,  although  perfect  in  every  detail, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  the  worker  in 
brass  even  if  he  had  been  a jeweller  and  accustomed 
to  fashion  the  settings  of  small  stones  could  so  ac- 
curately have  produced  such  tiny  machines.  It  is 
said  that  the  smallest  engine  in  the  world,  a beautiful 
piece  of  metal-work,  owned  by  an  American  collector, 
stands  on  a ten-cent  piece!  Yet  remarkable  as  it 
may  seem,  when  connected  with  an  electric  power 
cable  of  very  small  calibre  the  engine  starts  off  as 
if  it  were  a full-size  horizontal  engine.  The  chief 
materials  used  in  the  construction  are  copper  and 
brass,  although  the  band  of  the  fly-wheel  is  of  solid 
gold.  So  small  is  this  little  engine  that  its  measure- 
ments are  all  taken  in  sixty-fourths  of  an  inch.  Thus 
the  diameter  of  the  fly-wheel,  practically  the  largest 
piece  of  mechanism  in  the  construction  of  the  engine, 
is  -ff  in.,  and  the  fly-wheel  band  only  ^ in.  The 
valve  rod  is  only  ^ in.,  and  the  outside  diameter  of 
the  cylinder  \\  in.  ; completed,  standing  on  the  small 
coin  referred  to,  the  engine  weighs  3 dwt.,  a truly 
remarkable  work  of  metallic  art. 


XVIII 


ENAMELS 

ON 

COPPER 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
ENAMELS  ON  COPPER 

Processes  of  enamelling — Chinese  and  Japanese  enamels — British 
enamels. 


Copper  has  been  used  frequently  as  the  most  suitable 
metal  to  coat  over  with  enamels,  to  be  afterwards  fired 
or  fixed.  Even  the  ancients  discovered  the  art  of 
colouring  the  metal-work  they  had  wrought  by  the 
aid  of  different  enamels  more  or  less  translucent. 
Such  substances  were  used  in  varied  forms,  often 
as  paste,  filling  up  incised  designs,  the  workmen  in 
some  cases  rubbing  them  down  smooth  when  fixed, 
in  others  firing  them  by  heat  or  simply  heating 
until  they  ran  smoothly  over  the  surface  of  the 
metal  to  which  they  adhered.  The  enamels  which 
are  to  be  obtained  vary  in  substance,  the  beauty  of 
their  workmanship,  and  in  their  rarity  and  curio 
values.  They  cover  the  entire  period  of  known  art 
and  although  such  enamels  are  widely  distributed, 
the  art  of  enamelling  having  been  practised  in  almost 
all  countries  where  art  has  flourished,  some  have  won 
greater  fame  than  others,  many  of  these  rare  types 

17  349 


350  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


being  easily  distinguished  by  characteristic  forms, 
colours,  or  designs. 

Among  the  earlier  exponents  of  enamelling  were 
the  Egyptians,  the  early  Greeks,  and  to  some  extent 
the  Romans.  It  would  appear  that  enamelling  was 
understood,  too,  in  England,  and  was  early  practised 
as  a British  art,  but  it  soon  died  out,  to  be  re- 
stored again  in  this  country  under  more  favourable 
circumstances  in  the  greater  renaissance  of  mediaeval 
art. 

The  enamels  which  have  attained  such  great  fame, 
and  which  are  so  keenly  appreciated  by  connoisseurs, 
are  those  made  at  Limoges  in  Southern  France,  and 
again  to  a lesser  extent  in  Italy  and  the  Rhenish 
Provinces.  Two  beautiful  examples  of  twelfth-cen- 
tury pricket  candlesticks,  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
are  of  that  early  form  which,  except  for  ecclesiastical 
purposes,  soon  gave  way  to  the  socket  candlestick, 
a more  convenient  form  for  domestic  use. 

Processes  of  Enamelling. 

The  basis  of  most  of  the  enamels  on  copper 
is  a fusible  silicate,  or  colourless  glass  mixed  with 
metallic  oxides,  reduced  to  a fine  powder,  which  is 
applied  according  to  the  skill  of  the  artist.  The 
metal,  with  the  enamel  powder  upon  it,  is  then  fired 
until  it  is  melted  and  adheres  to  the  metal.  The 
different  treatments  help  the  expert  to  distinguish 
the  period  when  a specimen  under  investigation 
was  made,  and  to  some  extent  the  place  of  its 
manufacture.  There  is  the  translucent  enamel,  which 
shows  up  the  design  through  the  vitreous  matter,  a 


ENAMELS  ON  COPPER 


351 


method  originally  adopted  in  Italy.  Another  pro- 
cess was  that  of  applying  different  colours  over  an 
incised  pattern,  the  figures  or  pictures  being  usually 
engraved  in  low  relief.  Coarser  lines  of  engraving 
were  used  on  the  copper  basis  of  the  early  enamels 
made  at  Limoges.  Those  of  somewhat  later  date 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  surface-painted  enamels 
adopted  in  the  later  style,  which  flourished  until  about 
1630.  In  this  process  dark  enamel  for  the  shadows 
was  placed  over  the  metal  plate,  the  picture  being 
painted  in  white  with  some  portions  in  colour ; a thin 
enamel  surface  was  then  given  and  the  whole  fired. 
The  later  surface-painted  enamels  were  for  the 
most  part  copies  of  well-known  paintings  or  en- 
gravings, the  colour  or  enamel  being  afterwards 
fixed  by  firing.  In  the  process  of  enamelling  known 
as  champleve  the  design  was  cut  into  the  metal,  the 
pattern  or  incisions  made  filled  with  colours,  the 
enamels  being  then  fused ; the  basis  was  nearly 
always  of  copper.  The  cloisonne  enamel  was  generally 
on  a brass  basis,  and  as  in  the  more  recent  examples 
from  China  and  Japan,  the  cloisons  or  tiny  cells  of 
metal  were  filled  with  the  right  and  appropriate 
colours  ; afterwards  subjected  to  heat.  In  some  cases 
the  metal  foundation  is  in  the  centre  and  cloisons  or 
cells  formed  on  either  side  of  it.  There  is  something 
about  the  old  enamels  of  this  type  besides  the  wear 
and  tear  of  centuries  which  distinguishes  them  from 
the  more  modern,  which,  generally  speaking,  are 
more  brilliant  in  colouring,  cruder  and  sharper  in 
design,  and  without  that  beautiful  tone  which  is  so 
pleasing  in  the  antique. 


352  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Chinese  and  Japanese  Enamels. 

The  rarer  examples  of  Chinese  art  date  back  to  the 
beginning  of  the  Ming  period  in  1368,  continuing 
until  its  close  in  1643.  The  charm  of  these  early 
examples  is  at  once  recognizable  when  they  are 
compared  with  others  of  a later  date.  Fig.  87 
represents  a large  Ming  bowl  florally  decorated  in 
rich  red,  yellow,  and  white  on  a background  of 
cobalt  blue  outside  and  turquoise  blue  within. 
Quite  a different  style  of  decoration  is  shown  in 
Fig.  88 ; the  design  of  butterflies  and  gourd-vine 
tracery  being  carried  out  in  Pekin  enamels  in  five 
colours.  This  remarkably  fine  box,  so  charmingly 
formed,  contains  a set  of  nine  sweetmeat  dishes,  each 
one  bordered  with  bats  of  cobalt  blue  on  a lighter 
blue  ground,  on  the  cover  of  the  outer  box  being 
the  Shu  monogram.  Another  splendid  piece,  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  89,  is  typical  of  a different  style  of 
decoration.  This  fine  bowl,  also  of  the  Ming  period, 
is  florally  enamelled,  the  inside  showing  the  pattern 
outlined  by  wire  cloisons  upon  a white  ground,  the 
flowers  being  worked  in  five  colours.  This  bowl, 
which  is  four  inches  high,  is  represented  in  the  illus- 
tration as  standing  on  a beautifully  carved  stand  of 
about  equal  height.  These  choice  pieces  are  illus- 
trated by  the  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Glendining  & Co., 
Ltd.,  at  whose  well-known  London  auction  rooms 
they  recently  changed  hands.  The  second  great 
period  of  Chinese  art  is  that  of  the  Ching  Dynasty, 
which  commenced  in  1644  and  extended  until  more 
recent  times.  While  to  some  extent  the  art  and  the 
decorative  effect  of  that  period  was  inferior  to  that  of 


353 


FIG.  88— BOX  OF  PEKIN  ENAMEL. 


ENAMELS  ON  COPPER 


355 


to-day,  when  judged  from  the  present-day  standard  of 
modern  art,  there  was  a rare  beauty  about  the  old 
designs.  The  enamels  of  the  Ching  Dynasty  were 
carefully  prepared  and  placed,  and  the  colouring  soft 
and  yet  rich.  The  preparation  of  coloured  matter  by 
experts  of  that  period  when  the  best  ceramics  of 
China  were  made,  has  always  been  a subject  of 
admiration  and  wonder  to  the  potters  and  enamellers 
of  more  recent  years.  Examples  of  these  charming 
wares  are  not  exceptionally  rare,  among  the  collect- 
able pieces  being  cups  and  bowls,  exquisitely  de- 
signed kettles,  tiers  of  boxes,  water  vessels,  round 
and  oblong  dishes,  and  incense  burners.  Some  of 
the  bowls  with  covers  are  of  quaint  forms,  a favourite 
one  being  that  of  a peach.  Vases  of  which  the  base 
is  enamel  are  often  further  enriched  by  ornaments 
of  copper-gilt.  Among  the  rarer  little  curios  seen 
in  a representative  collection  may  be  mentioned 
small  water  droppers,  mostly  made  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

The  Ch’ien  Lung  period  which  followed  extended 
from  i736to  1796,  and  included  many  candlesticks  and 
altar  pieces  as  well  as  braziers,  some  of  the  copper 
vessels  being  practically  encrusted  with  enamels, 
some  of  the  finer  ornamentation  being  attached 
to  the  ground-work  as  additional  or  supplementary 
decorative  effects.  As  in  the  earlier  periods  much 
labour  was  expended  on  the  production  of  the  many 
fine  temple  sets  which  were  presented  to  such  uses. 
The  exceptionally  fine  altar  set  wrought  in  cloisonne 
enamels,  illustrated  in  Fig.  90,  is  of  the  Ch’ien  Lung 
period,  and  consists  of  a beautifully  designed  koro, 


356  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


supported  on  legs  in  the  form  of  tigers’  heads,  two 
candlesticks  18  in.  high,  and  a pair  of  vases.  The 
style  of  decoration  is  very  rich,  being  turquoise 
blue  ground  on  which  are  floral  designs  in  red, 
green,  dark  blue,  yellow,  and  other  bright  colours. 
The  pieces  stand  on  brass-gilt  foundations,  which  rest 
on  carved  wooden  stands,  the  set  forming  an  ex- 
tremely interesting  group,  typical  of  the  highest  art 
of  the  Ch’ien  Lung  period.  There  are  many  richly 
ornamented  and  extremely  valuable  specimens  of 
more  recent  date  admired  by  connoisseurs  of  art  in 
the  galleries  and  curio-shops  ; but  however  beautiful 
they  are  the  collector  of  the  older  curios  appraises 
their  values  from  a modern  commercial  standpoint, 
and  does  not  view  them  as  he  would  antiques. 

British  Enamels. 

It  was  not  until  the  art  of  enamelling  had  been 
perfected  at  Lille  and  other  places  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe,  that  an  attempt  was  made  to  produce 
similar  trinkets  and  a few  more  important  pieces, 
such  as  candlesticks  and  inkstands,  in  this  country. 
The  works  established  at  Battersea  by  Mr.  S.  T. 
Janssen  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
soon  gained  notoriety,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the 
enamels  made  there  were  eagerly  sought  after.  In 
addition  to  those  articles  mentioned,  they  consisted 
chiefly  of  tea-canisters,  snuff-boxes,  spirit  labels,  and 
patchboxes,  the  copper  being  coated  over  with  an 
opaque  white  enamel,  which  was  coloured  over  and 
then  decorated  with  floral  and  other  designs.  Rose 
tint  afterwards  became  one  of  the  favourite  ground 


ENAMELS  ON  COPPER 


357 


colours  at  Battersea.  Among  the  rarer  examples 
may  be  classed  inkstands  and  writing-table  appoint- 
ments. The  inkstands  usually  include  an  ink- 
container,  a pen-box,  and  a sand  or  pounce  pot, 
for  Battersea  enamel  inkstands  were  made  before 
blotting-paper  was  invented,  and  the  wet  ink, 
chiefly  applied  with  a quill  pen,  was  dusted  over 
with  pounce  to  prevent  blotting,  and  when  dry  the 
surplus  was  dusted  off.  The  collector  finds  much 
to  interest  in  the  little  patchboxes  of  enamel,  of 
which  there  were  many  varieties.  They  remained 
useful  when  the  fashion  of  wearing  patches  de- 
clined, for  then  they  came  in  handy  for  cosmetics, 
salves,  and  pomades.  These  curious  little  boxes 
were  frequently  given  by  admirers  and  friends,  as 
may  be  imagined  from  the  mottoes  and  sentimental 
inscriptions  upon  them.  Among  the  commoner 
varieties  seen  in  a collection  are  little  oval  boxes 
on  which  are  pictured  two  love-birds,  sometimes 
accompanied  by  a bird’s  nest.  Others  will  have 
imitations  of  needlework  pictures,  such  as  the  fair 
ones  worked  in  those  days.  Sometimes  a little 
church  is  seen  in  the  distance,  and  in  the  foreground 
a boy  and  girl  exchanging  love-tokens.  “ This  gift 
is  small,  but  love  is  all,”  is  a favourite  motto. 
“Virtue  fair,  manners  sweet,  Together  in  my  fair 
one  meet,”  are  two  oft-quoted  lines,  and  another 
favourite  verse  is : 

“ L you,  my  dear, 

Accept  of  this, 

Reward  the  giver 
With  a kiss.” 


358  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Some  boxes,  however,  have  evidently  been  the  gifts 
of  those  who  could  only  claim  “ friendship  ” or 
acquaintance  with  the  recipient,  for  they  bear  such 
sentiments  as  “ A token  of  my  respect,”  “ Accept 
this  as  a token  of  my  esteem,”  and  “Esteem  the 
giver.”  Some  appear  to  have  been  made  for  sale 
as  place  souvenirs,  for  they  are  inscribed  “A  trifle 
from  Bath,”  or  other  town  where  they  had  been 
procured.  Battersea  portrait  placques  were  made 
between  1750  and  1760,  among  the  favourite  sub- 
jects being  the  then  Prince  of  Wales  (afterwards 
George  IV),  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  statesmen, 
among  whom  Horace  Walpole  was  evidently  one  of 
the  most  popular. 

English  enamellers  in  other  places,  such  as  Bilston, 
attained  some  fame,  but  the  Battersea  works  held 
their  own,  and  not  only  produced  the  trinket  boxes 
and  other  toilet-table  appointments  referred  to,  but 
many  useful  sundries,  such  as  spirit  and  wine  labels, 
little  trays,  and  the  like.  None  of  these,  although 
beautiful  indeed,  equalled  the  French  enamels  in  the 
delicate  miniature  paintings  and  scenes  such  as  those 
produced  by  the  celebrated  French  painter,  Petitot, 
who  gave  much  attention  to  the  decoration  of 
exquisite  toilet  boxes  and  trinket  trays. 


359 


FIG.  90. — FINE  ALTAR  SET  OF  CLOISONNE  ENAMELS  (CH’lEN  LUNG  PERIOD). 


XIX 


MISCELLANEOUS 

METAL 

CURIOS 


4 


CHAPTER  XIX 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS 

Tobacco-boxes  and  pipe-stoppers — Snuff-boxes — Handles  and  Handle- 
> plates — Horse  trappings — War  relics  —Tiny  curios — Replicas. 


The  collectable  curios  in  metal  include  many  which 
cannot  be  classified.  They  are  isolated  specimens 
of  copper  and  brasswork  representing  some  special 
household  utensil  or  workshop  appliance  which,  in 
the  course  of  time,  has  become  obsolete  or  has  been 
superseded  by  more  modern  contrivances  of  other 
materials.  Copper  was  almost  exclusively  used  in 
works  where  acids  and  other  chemicals  prevented  the 
use  of  iron  until  enamelled  wares,  aluminium,  and 
zinc  were  available ; but  such  workshop  appliances 
are  not  usually  very  attractive,  and  seldom  come 
within  the  scope  of  the  collector  except  as  museum 
specimens.  Among  the  various  sundry  objects  of 
interest,  those  mentioned  in  the  following  para- 
graphs are  worthy  of  notice,  especially  as  many 
of  them  are  quite  inexpensive,  and  can  readily  be 
obtained  from  curio-shops  and  occasionally  picked 
up  cheaply  from  cottages  and  farmhouses  in  out- 
of-the-way  places. 


363 


364  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


Tobacco-boxes  and  Pipe-stoppers. 

Smokers’  sundries  include  many  objects  in  brass, 
especially  boxes  for  storing  tobacco.  Most  of  the 
larger  receptacles  for  the  storage  of  tobacco  were 
in  olden  time  of  lead  or  pewter,  or,  in  more  recent 
times,  of  japanned  tin,  followed  in  the  present  day 
by  pottery  and  wood.  The  small  boxes  in  the  days 
before  rubber  pouches  were  known  were  nearly 
always  of  brass  or  other  metal,  such  boxes  being 
often  elaborately  ornamented.  Dutch  metal-workers 
produced  some  very  decorative  boxes  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  In  some  instances  the  sides  are 
made  of  copper  and  the  covers  or  lids  of  brass, 
the  two  metals  in  contrast  presenting  a very  pleasing 
appearance.  Several  of  these  boxes  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  Guildhall  Museum  j on  one  there  is  the 
representation  of  a bear-pit,  on  another  scriptural 
subjects,  a third  being  more  appropriately  covered 
with  tavern  scenes.  Needless  to  say,  Dutch  artists 
were  then — as  they  have  been  in  after  years — famous 
for  their  scenic  views.  The  engravers  appear  to  have 
divided  their  favours  between  religious  pictures  and 
rural  scenes.  Battles,  too,  came  in  for  a share  of  the 
engraver’s  skill,  and  such  pictures  are  noticeable  on 
many  of  the  larger  boxes,  some  of  which  possibly 
were  not  used  as  tobacco-boxes.  The  picture  scenes 
were  continued  until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  in  some  instances  a few  years  in  the 
next.  Then  there  came  a time  of  undecorated  metal- 
work, and  the  engraving,  if  any,  was  stiff  and  formal. 
Ornamental  borders  came  into  vogue,  and  the  more 
elaborate  boxes  were  engraved  with  the  crests  or 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  365 


monograms  of  their  owners.  Some  show  portraits, 
such  as  an  eighteenth-century  box  on  which  is  a 
portrait  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

The  metal-work  so  freely  imported  into  this 
country  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  and  on 
into  the  times  of  George  III,  of  course  included 
many  tobacco-boxes,  but  there  are  other  pieces  of 
those  periods,  the  uses  of  which  are  uncertain ; 
some  of  the  long,  narrow  boxes  were  probably 
made  for  spectacle-cases,  and  others  as  cases  or 
boxes  for  the  money-changers’  and  traders’  scales 
(see  Chapter  XI). 

Ash-trays  of  copper  and  brass,  among  the  fanciful 
smokers’  requisites  of  the  present  day,  are  by  no 
means  novel,  for  among  the  antiques  in  metal  are 
found  curious  copper  bowls  with  inverted  feet  and 
wooden  handles  which  were  used  by  smokers  in 
the  days  when  “churchwarden”  pipes  were  mostly 
smoked  ; they  were  known  as  smokers’  ashes  pans. 

Tobacco-stoppers  of  metal  are  of  early  date,  and 
seem  to  have  been  regarded  by  metal-workers  as 
peculiarly  suitable  objects  on  which  to  display  skill 
in  modelling  and  even  engraving.  An  authentic 
record  of  their  use  in  Restoration  days  is  met  with 
in  a will  referring  to  a bequest  of  Boscobel  relics : 
“The  owner  of  an  old  oak  box,  dated  1660, 
mentioned  it  as  the  ‘one  in  which  was  a brass 
tobacco-stopper.’”  Of  these  curious  and  interesting 
stoppers  there  are  many  varieties.  Under  Dutch 
influence  some  striking  characters  were  portrayed 
as  the  ornamental  heads  of  these  pieces.  In  the 
days  of  William  and  Mary  they  were  chiefly  cast, 


366  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


and  afterwards  tooled  and  even  engraved.  James  II 
was  chosen  as  the  model  of  many ; and  stoppers 
with  his  bust  as  the  handle  were,  it  is  said,  treasured 
by  Jacobean  admirers.  The  human  hand  in  which 
is  seen  a “ churchwarden  ” pipe  is  a favourite  type ; 
pugilists,  too,  figured,  and  others  typified  familiar 
objects  of  local  fame,  even  animals,  birds,  and 
domestic  utensils  serving  the  purpose  of  the  designer. 
In  recent  days  “Punch”  has  appeared,  and  among 
the  modern  replicas  of  “ early  types  ” (sic)  to  be  seen 
in  the  shops  are  sets  of  Dickens’s  characters  as 
tobacco-stoppers. 

Snuff-boxes. 

There  are  some  of  the  so-called  tobacco-boxes 
which  no  doubt  were  in  reality  used  only  for  snuff 
in  the  days  when  snuff  was  taken  in  larger  quantities 
than  it  is  to-day.  A collection  of  snuff-boxes  includes 
many  varieties,  among  which  are  some  of  metal. 
Some  of  the  boxes  made  of  wood  and  of  shagreen 
are  decorated  with  tiny  brass  studs,  producing  a 
very  pleasing  effect.  The  snuff-boxes  were  shaped 
according  to  popular  fancy,  and  some  of  the  more 
eccentric  patterns  were  local  in  their  use.  In 
Scotland  the  curled-shaped  mull  was  a favourite. 
In  connection  with  snuff-taking  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  in  the  earlier  days  snuff  as  prepared 
now  was  little  known.  Those  addicted  to  the  habit 
had  to  prepare  their  own  snuff.  For  that  purpose 
there  came  into  vogue  snuff-rasps  of  iron  enclosed 
in  cases,  which,  although  they  were  in  some  instances 
of  boxwood  or  carved  pearwood,  were  now  and  then 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  367 


of  metal.  Incidentally  this  early  home  preparation  of 
the  snuff  produced  from  a small  plug  or  twist  of 
tobacco  gave  rise  to  the  popular  trader’s  sign  of  the 
“ Crown  and  Rasp  ” over  a tobacco  shop.  As 
intimated  in  another  chapter,  many  of  the  tobacco 
and  snuff-boxes  served  a dual  purpose,  and  not 
infrequently  formed  part  of  the  tinder  box,  an 
essential  in  early  days. 

> 

Handles  and  Handle-plates. 

The  condition  of  the  metal-work  upon  old 
furniture  and  other  curios  is  a factor  in  its  beauty 
and  in  its  value  too.  The  handles  and  handle- 
plates  should  be  of  the  same  period  as  the  antique, 
and  hinges,  lock-plates,  handles  and  their  plates, 
ball  feet  and  castors  should  be  en  suite.  Indeed, 
it  is  better  to  substantiate  a well-made  reproduction 
rather  than  to  admit  the  use  of  a later  style. 
The  want  of  harmony  in  the  “brass  furniture”  of 
antiques,  although  all  portions  appear  old,  is  some- 
what puzzling  at  times.  It  is  explainable  in  that 
in  early  Victorian  days  when  much  that  was  then 
old  was  repaired  the  village  shopkeeper  and  even 
the  cabinet-maker  had  little  regard  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  old  style.  To  restore  meant  to  them 
to  repair,  and  where  necessary  to  introduce  the  then 
prevailing  materials  notwithstanding  their  obvious 
inappropriateness. 

Fortunately,  dealers  in  antiques  and  restorers  have 
acquired  nowadays  a genuine  love  of  their  work, 
and  have  learned  how  best  to  please  their  clients ; 
many  of  them  having  quite  a store  of  odd  handles 


368  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


and  fittings  for  the  curio-hunter  and  would-be 
amateur  restorer  to  choose  from.  To  be  quite 
certain  about  getting  a suitable  style  for  the 
restoration  or  repairs  of  old  furniture  it  is  desirable 
to  know  something  of  the  appropriate  styles.  The 
drop  handle  is  a foreign  importation,  for  it  is  said 
to  have  come  from  Japan,  being  first  seen  in  this 
country  in  the  Oriental  lacquer  cabinets  brought 
here  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Such  handles  were 
at  first  pear-shaped,  but  they  soon  became  larger 
and  of  a type  more  adapted  for  drawers  and  the 
heavier  furniture  then  in  use.  Much  hand  labour 
was  expended  upon  their  manufacture ; even  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  were 
filed  up  by  hand.  The  earliest  form  of  brass 
handle-plate  was  the  smooth  and  shiny  “ willow 
brass,”  the  edges  of  which  were  filed  and  shaped 
by  hand.  Later  they  were  distinguished  from  the 
newer  styles  as  “ Queen  Ann  brasses.”  The  handles 
were  fastened  to  the  plates  with  brass-headed  screw 
bolts  (in  the  commoner  types  the  “ plates  ” were 
dispensed  with).  Chippendale  and  his  followers 
used  an  adaptation  of  the  willow  brass,  placing 
over  the  plain  plate  a fretwork  grille  or  ornamental 
plate  of  thin  brass.  Then  came  the  bail  handle 
and  the  oval  plate  with  beaded  ornamentation, 
adopted  by  Hepplewhite  and  Adams.  In  the  mean- 
time, however,  the  drop  and  the  bail  were  made 
in  a fancy  design  in  keeping  with  Chippendale 
“shells”  and  ornament.  The  rosette  and  ring  handle 
of  the  year  1800  and  onwards  is  a feature  to  be 
noticed,  the  round  plate  being  pierced  in  the  centre 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  369 


instead  of  at  the  sides  as  in  the  bail  handle.  The 
ring  which  formed  the  handle  hung  from  the  central 
screw.  This  got  over  the  difficulty  of  the  necessary 
groove  in  which  the  old  bail  handle  had  fallen,  and 
allowed  for  a deeper  projection  and  more  ornamental 
stamping.  Such  handles  were  in  vogue  in  the 
Empire  period.  There  were  heavier  handles,  too, 
which  often  took  the  form  of  a lion’s  head  instead 
of  an  ornamental  pattern,  the  ring  hanging  from 
the  mouth  of  the  lion,  these  being  often  miniature 
replicas  of  the  brass  door  knocker.  These  beautiful 
handles  and  the  delightful  brass  knockers  which 
were  used  on  furniture  and  doors  concurrently  gave 
way  to  the  ugly  handles  of  the  Victorian  age,  when 
wood  and  glass  knobs  reigned  supreme.  It  was  a 
sad  picture  of  the  decadence  of  popular  taste,  for 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  more  artistic 
and  ornamental  decorativeness  of  the  brassfounder’s 
art  over  that  of  the  wood-turner  as  exemplified  by 
the  products  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

At  the  time  when  the  different  styles  in  furniture 
decoration  influenced  brasswork,  including  handles, 
knobs,  lock-plates,  and  hinges,  a gradual  change 
was  going  on  in  the  castors  used  on  furniture.  The 
square  legs  required  a square-socketed  castor  ; then 
came  the  cabrioles  or  brass  collars  to  the  castors, 
very  ornamental  and  suitable  to  the  style  of  the 
shaped  legs  of  mahogany  furniture  ornamented  by 
carving  and  curiously  turned.  The  runners  of  the 
castors  were  chiefly  of  brass  and  generally  very 
substantial.  The  brass  wheels  held  sway  until  the 
invention  of  the  vitrified  bowl,  which  seemed  to 

18 


370  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


harmonize  better  with  Victorian  mahogany.  In 
restoration  work  the  collector  should  see  to  it  that 
the  castors  used  are  in  keeping  with  the  furniture, 
for  if  no  genuine  antiques  are  available  there  are 
modern  replicas  of  all  the  styles. 

Horse  Trappings. 

Horse  harness  is  heavily  loaded  with  brass  bands, 
buckles,  chains,  and  “ trappings,”  many  of  the  latter 
appearing  to  be  quite  superfluous  and  unnecessary. 
It  would  seem  that  the  fanciful  frets  of  perforated 
brass  were  introduced  from  purely  artistic  motives. 
That,  however,  is  not  quite  correct,  for  even  the 
brass  ornaments  of  to-day  are  chiefly  replicas  of  more 
ancient  trappings,  and  although  their  forms  may 
have  deviated  somewhat,  the  ancient  idea  is  quite 
recognizable,  and  agriculturists  and  stablemen  still 
demand  their  retention.  Such  brasses,  which  now 
make  up  so  entertaining  a collection,  have  meanings ; 
indeed,  in  the  earlier  examples  the  designs  are  true 
to  well-understood  symbols  which  may  or  may  not 
in  their  use  have  a beneficial  influence.  To  the 
superstitious  they  are  not  merely  trappings ; they 
are  charms  of  real  purpose  (see  Fig.  91). 

In  all  parts  of  the  country  there  is  a lingering 
superstition  which  aids  and  abets  the  continuance 
of  the  use  of  amulets.  Indeed,  the  very  general 
belief  in  the  protective  value  of  symbols,  the  true 
history  and  origin  of  which  may  have  been  forgotten, 
is  truly  astonishing.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
indications  that  old  fables  and  beliefs,  antedating 
in  their  origin  the  introduction  of  the  Christian 


371 


FIG.  91. — COLLECTION  OF  BRASS  AMULETS  (HARNESS  BRASSES). 
(In  the  possession  of  Mr.  Chas.  Wayte , of  Edenbridge.) 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  373 


religion  in  this  country,  have  a hold  still  on  rural 
districts,  is  seen  in  the  brass  harness  trappings  used 
by  all  classes  alike.  Years  ago  the  makers  of 
harness  fashioned  their  brasses  with  care,  and  the 
artists  who  engraved  them  and  cut  them  out  of 
solid  plates  of  metal  laboured  long  and  tediously 
in  producing  exact  replicas  of  similar  ornaments 
which  had  been  used  from  time  immemorial.  They 
rarely  deviated  from  the  emblems  they  copied  to 
any  material  extent,  although  new  designs  were  at 
times  added,  based  possibly  on  some  specific  local 
emblem  which  was  then  gaining  notoriety. 

Then  came  the  less  expensive  processes  of  re- 
production by  casting  and  stamping,  which  multiplied 
the  designs  and  very  often  made  them  grotesque 
in  the  eyes  of  experts  and  those  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  realize  and  understand  a true  meaning 
in  the  designs  they  had  been  familiar  with. 

The  ornamental  brasses  which  hung  in  rows  round 
horses’  necks,  and  conspicuously  on  the  foreheads 
or  chests  of  the  animals,  deemed  inseparable  from 
a set  of  harness  in  olden  times,  were  regarded  as 
charms,  protective  against  danger,  accident,  and,  in 
wilder  times,  perils  unknown  to-day. 

These  very  pleasing  objects  in  brass,  which  look 
so  handsome  when  polished  and  arranged  on  a cloth- 
covered  shield  in  the  harness-room,  or,  perchance, 
framed  as  a trophy  for  the  hall  or  gun-room,  are 
so  varied,  and  yet  for  the  most  part  quite  distinct, 
that  it  is  said  nearly  two  hundred  designs  are 
collectable.  A complete  set  of  brasses,  as  worn  by 
one  horse  properly  harnessed,  includes  the  face  brass 


374  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


already  mentioned  as  the  chief  ornament  on  the 
forehead,  ear-brasses  hanging  behind  the  ears,  three 
brasses  on  each  side  of  the  shoulders,  and  ten  martin- 
gale (a  strap  passing  from  the  horse’s  girth  between 
his  forelegs)  brasses  for  the  breast.  To  trace  their 
purport  and  hence  their  forms  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  they  are  associated  with  the  folk-lore  of 
the  districts  where  they  were  originally  used,  and 
were  chiefly  intended  to  keep  off  the  “ Evil  Eye  ” 
or  calamity.  They  go  back  a long  way  into  the 
past,  and  are  nearly  all  attributable  to  symbols 
understood  by  the  Saxons,  early  British,  and  still 
older  races.  Their  modern  exponents  are  the 
gypsies,  and  strange  as  it  may  seem,  most  of  them 
are  either  Buddhist,  Egyptian,  or  Moorish.  The 
genuine  antiques  include  such  well-known  emblems 
as  the  crescent,  the  symbol  brought  back,  it  is  said, 
by  the  Crusaders  from  Eastern  lands.  The  crescent 
moon,  like  the  horseshoe  brass,  is  valued.  There 
are  others  showing  the  radiated  sun’s  rays  indicating 
the  sun  worship  of  our  ancestors.  Conspicuous 
among  the  floral  emblems  may  be  noticed  the  iris ; 
the  lotus  of  Egypt  is  a common  emblem,  often 
enclosed  in  a crescent-like  form,  occasionally  met 
with  in  a shield-like  frame.  There  are  the  bull’s 
head  with  horns  and  the  horse  of  the  Saxon  banner, 
both  essentially  English  types.  Then  there  are  clubs 
and  diamonds,  hearts  and  spades,  and  many  heathen 
symbols.  In  a few  instances  brasses  in  the  shape 
of  crosses  are  met  with,  but  these  are  rare  ; possibly 
they  were  introduced  in  the  days  of  the  Canterbury 
pilgrims.  In  this  connection  may  be  related  a pretty 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  375 


story  of  the  good  luck  associated  with  the  horse- 
shoe, which  comes  from  Russia,  where  peasants 
used  to  paint  a picture  of  the  Virgin  Mary  with  a 
golden  halo  round  her  head  outside  their  doors  to 
protect  them  from  harm.  The  snows  and  the  rains 
washed  off  the  paint,  but  left  the  more  lasting 
gilding  in  the  shape  of  the  horseshoe.  Hence  it 
is  said  the  superstitious  legend  of  the  protective 
power  or  good  luck  of  the  symbolical  horseshoe, 
or  the  crescent  moon,  is  spread  all  the  world  over. 
Another  legend  tells  us  how  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
gave  the  world  the  crescent  moon  as  an  emblem 
of  good  luck,  so  many  thousands  of  replicas  of 
which  have  been  fashioned  in  brass  and  used  as 
horse  trappings  by  horsemen  of  all  races.  The 
crescent  moon  was  to  those  nations  the  symbol  of 
their  loyalty  to  the  huntress  Diana,  the  goddess 
they  worshipped  as  a protector  under  many  varied 
conditions. 

An  exceptionally  fine  early  brass  of  crescent  form 
is  seen  in  South  Kensington,  where  there  are  other 
early  specimens  pointing  to  the  ancient  and  very 
general  acceptance  of  the  belief  in  the  potency  of 
symbolical  horse  trappings  as  talismans  against  evil 
and  dangers  of  the  road,  happily  unknown  now. 
Almost  as  common  is  the  brass  fashioned  like  the 
sun  god,  whose  face  was  so  often  looked  upon  with 
awe  by  the  ancients.  Side  by  side  with  these  pagan 
symbols  the  emblems  adapted  by  pilgrims  in  days 
when  Christianity  had  been  made  the  religion  of 
the  race  can  be  seen  to-day,  still  adorning  the  breast 
of  the  horse. 


376  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


The  amulet  or  charm  is  not  altogether  banished  at 
the  present  day.  It  has  been  worn  at  the  watch 
chain,  round  the  neck,  on  a bangle,  and  suspended 
from  the  chatelaine  or  the  girdle.  The  greater  use 
of  the  road  by  motorist  and  cyclist  has  once  more 
brought  into  prominence  the  amulet  or  mascot, 
carried  in  front  of  the  rider.  The  river-girl  places 
a mascot  on  the  prow  of  her  boat,  and  the  aviator 
screws  his  mascot  into  position  “ for  luck.”  Why 
this  should  be  done  we  cannot  tell ; the  general  belief 
is  in  some  mysterious  advantage  from  the  presence 
of  the  mascot — an  accepted  theory  by  the  sceptical 
man  who  shakes  his  head  and  secretly  marvels  at 
the  folly  of  the  belief. 

Strange  to  say  many  of  the  present-day  mascots 
in  brass — and  that  is  the  favourite  metal — are 
modelled  upon  amulets  such  as  we  have  referred 
to  as  finding  their  origin  in  pagan  faiths.  There 
are  others  used  by  motorists,  such  as  “ Caesar,”  the 
late  King  Edward’s  dog,  the  “ Chantecler,”  and  the 
stag’s  head,  which  have  no  mystic  meanings ; on 
the  other  hand,  the  most  favoured  are  such  brasses 
as  the  “ star  and  cresent  ” and  the  “ rising  sun  ” of 
pagan  worship  of  our  ancestors,  and  “ Mercury  ” the 
Greek  god. 

The  brass  mascot  used  in  every  form,  large  and 
small,  by  motorists  and  worn  by  many  others  so 
extensively  is  the  “ Swastika  ” of  Buddhist  fame, 
traceable  in  its  varied  form  to  Egyptian  and  other 
early  nations.  These  mascots  in  brass,  made  in 
thousands  to-day,  are  brass  curios  in  the  making ; 
possibly  in  a century  or  so  they  may  be  classed  with 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  377 


the  oldest  brass  amulets  described  in  this  chapter, 
and  s©  add  to  the  metal  relics  to  be  collected  by 
future  curio-hunters ! 

Copper  Sheathing  and  Nails. 

Copper  sheathing  has  been  used  by  boat-builders 
and  made  to  serve  a useful  purpose,  protecting  the 
ship’s  bottom  and  resisting  the  action  of  salt  water. 
Oftentimes  this  valuable  material — costly  when  new 
— has  been  used  over  again  when  vessels  have  been 
broken  up,  and  not  infrequently  it  is  put  to  curious 
uses  in  old  seaport  towns.  Visitors  to  an  old-world 
village  built  on  the  side  of  a hill  near  the  sea  in 
North  Cornwall,  have  looked  with  admiration  upon 
two  remarkable  gateposts  in  front  of  a cottage 
house,  and  admired  their  quaint  carvings.  These 
relics  in  oak  were  once  the  ends  of  seats  in  a neigh- 
bouring parish  church  ; but  either  to  preserve  them 
from  injury  from  the  village  children  or  to  give  them 
a longer  life  as  they  would  be  exposed  to  the 
weather,  the  upper  portions  have  been  sheathed 
with  copper  from  the  bottom  of  some  broken-up 
wreck,  and  large  copper  nails  keep  the  casing  in 
place.  Copper  and  brass  nails  have  been  used  for 
ornament  as  well  as  to  resist  acids  and  other  metal- 
destroying  chemicals.  Old  furniture  is  evidence  ot 
this  ; for  at  one  time  the  leather  covers  to  the  chairs 
were  almost  invariably  fixed  by  round-headed  brass 
studs,  which  from  that  use  became  known  in  the 
trade  as  “ chair  nails.”  Such  nails  were  used  to 
ornament  brass  bellows  and  other  domestic  utensils. 
They  were  also  used  to  “ decorate  ” the  skin-covered 


378  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


tranks  which  our  ancestors  took  with  them  on  their 
rare  journeys  of  pleasure  or  business,  when  they 
travelled  by  the  mail-coach  or  less  expensive  stage 
wagon.  Nails  of  brass  have  been  used  and  are  still 
sometimes  used  for  sadder  purposes,  for  they  are 
a feature  in  the  ornament  of  cloth-covered  coffins. 
That  of  King  Edward  VI  was  decorated  {sic)  with 
upwards  of  two  thousand  brass  nails  with  gilt  heads. 

War  Relics. 

What  wonderful  antiquities  are  sometimes  found 
among  scraps!  Years  of  neglect  cause  indifference 
to  the  contents  of  a scrapheap,  and  we  read  occa- 
sionally of  the  dispersal  of  relics  among  which, 
unknown  to  either  sellers  or  buyers,  there  may  be 
antiquities  of  more  than  passing  interest  if  their 
original  ownership  could  only  be  traced,  for  in  the 
personal  relics  of  great  warriors  in  our  national 
museums  there  clings  a halo  of  hero-worship,  and 
what  to  many  would  be  considered  fictitious  values 
are  attached  to  such  curios.  A few  years  ago  the 
relics  from  the  battlefield  of  Waterloo,  which  had 
for  some  time  past  been  accumulated  in  a modest 
looking  building  at  the  foot  of  the  Lion  Mound, 
were  dispersed.  There  were  upwards  of  three 
thousand  pieces,  including  helmets  of  brass,  plates 
of  shining  metal,  innumerable  buttons  and  ornaments 
belonging  to  different  French  regiments,  including 
officers’  regimentals,  and  some  relics  of  the  British 
and  Prussian  armies.  In  old  curio-shops  many 
metal  relics  of  battlefields  are  offered  for  sale,  but 
they  have  little  or  no  interest  to  the  buyer,  simply 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  379 


because  their  identity  with  their  original  owners  has 
been  lost.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  future 
generations  of  collectors  that  all  records  relating  to 
known  curios  should  be  chronicled,  and  that  even 
private  collectors  should  hand  on  to  their  successors 
adequate  descriptions  which  may  have  been  verbally 
given  them,  so  that  private  as  well  as  national  relics 
may  be  identified  and  the  monetary  value  in  such 
curios  increased.  Even  a brass  plate  on  an  old  gun, 
bearing  the  name  of  a great  man,  makes  it  a relic 
worth  securing,  whereas  had  the  identity  of  owner- 
ship been  missing  the  weapon  would  be  of  little 
or  no  value. 

A visit  to  the  United  Service  Museum  at  West- 
minster is  full  of  interest.  There  is  an  abundance 
of  personal  relics  there — not  many  of  brass,  it  is 
true — many  of  which  are  of  special  interest. 
Perhaps  the  one  of  greatest  historical  fame  is  the 
much  battered  copper  bugle  on  which  it  is  said  the 
signal  was  given  for  the  fatal  charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade  at  Balaclava,  resulting  so  disastrously  to 
that  famous  regiment.  There  are  some  curious 
trophies  of  brass,  too,  which  have  been  brought  home 
by  our  troops;  one  known  as  “Jingling  Johnny” 
is  of  special  interest. 

Tiny  Curios. 

At  one  time  there  was  quite  a rage  for  miniatures 
in  metal-work.  Artists  in  copper  and  brass  vied 
with  one  another  in  working  microscopically.  They 
were  very  fond  of  making  use  of  some  recognized 
piece  of  metal,  the  size,  weight,  and  substance  of 


380  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


which  was  well  understood  by  the  public ; hence 
the  difficulties  of  manipulating  the  works  of  art 
they  produced  would  be  realized.  Thus,  out  of  a 
copper  farthing,  a worker  in  metal  would  with  very 
tiny  hammers  and  a still  smaller  soldering-iron  and 
miniature  blow-pipe,  fashion  a complete  copper  tea- 
kettle with  a tiny  spout  out  of  which  liquid  could 
be  poured,  a loose  lid,  a correctly  formed  knob,  and 
a beautifully  shaped  handle.  Another  would  make 
a similar  kettle  out  of  a similar  piece  of  metal,  and 
leave  some  portion  of  the  farthing,  perhaps  the  date, 
uninjured  as  the  central  ornament  on  the  side  of  the 
kettle,  or  on  the  top  of  the  handle  ; others  would  add 
a stand,  like  the  then  fashionable  toddy-kettles  and 
stands.  In  a similar  way  other  little  domestic 
utensils  were  made  by  the  worker  in  copper,  who 
used  watchmakers’  hammers  and  tools  such  as 
jewellers  employed  in  the  setting  of  precious  stones. 
A collector  at  one  time  had  in  his  possession  a 
beautifully  shaped  coffee  boiler  of  the  type  used 
on  the  open  fire  when  coffee  was  boiled  and  after- 
wards allowed  to  stand  on  the  hob  for  some  time 
before  it  was  deemed  sufficiently  brewed.  Another 
charming  miniature  novelty  was  a brass  stool,  per- 
forated, and  made  to  revolve  just  as  the  larger 
toasting  stool  once  common  in  every  fireplace. 
Fenders  and  fire-brasses  were  favourite  objects  for 
miniature  metal  ornaments,  and  the  way  in  which 
the  skilled  worker  manipulated  the  copper  “ sheets  ” 
hammered  out  by  hand  from  small  coins  showed 
mastery  of  the  craft  and  great  patience.  Such  little 
objects  were  frequently  displayed  on  the  “parlour’’ 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  381 


table  under  a glass  shade,  the  woodworker  being 
sometimes  requisitioned  to  make  a stand,  possibly 
a canopied  top,  on  which  to  show  off  to  the  best 
advantage  these  tiny  ornaments. 

In  the  same  way  the  engraver  of  brass  and  copper 
worked  under  a strong  lens,  and  sought  to  produce 
whole  texts  of  Scripture  and  quite  long  inscriptions 
on  an  almost  impossibly  small  surface.  These  little 
pieces  of  metal  were  worn  as  charms,  and  similar 
objects  were  displayed  as  trophies.  Many  of  our 
readers  have  seen  no  doubt  the  whole  of  the 
Lord’s  Prayer  or  the  Ten  Commandments  engraved 
on  a threepenny-piece  or  a copper  farthing.  It  is 
said  such  microscopic  engraving  took  its  rise  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II  when  Thomas  Simon,  a noted 
engraver  of  the  Mint,  engraved  in  double  lines  on  his 
famous  “ Petition  Crown  ” a petition  to  the  king. 
Specimens  of  the  crown  are  very  rare,  and  are 
regarded  as  the  scarcest  treasures  in  a numismatic 
cabinet. 

Replicas. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  there  is 
no  branch  of  curio  collecting  which  has  such  a close 
and  intimate  touch  with  modern  art  as  that  of  copper 
and  brass.  The  tools  with  which  the  ancient  copper- 
smiths wrought  and  fashioned  their  most  beautiful 
works  are  still  used  by  the  coppersmiths  of  to-day, 
for  although  in  the  eyes  of  some  the  traces  of  machine- 
stamped  or  pressed  ornament  in  the  so-called  repro- 
ductions of  the  antiques  are  noticeable  blemishes, 
there  are  few  distinguishing  marks  between  the  old 


382  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


and  the  new.  Those  modern  artists  who  specialize 
in  providing  those  who  furnish  their  houses  in 
antique  style  with  replicas  of  the  domestic  copper- 
work  of  a century  or  two  ago,  are  very  careful  to 
produce  their  “ modern  antique  ” by  the  use  of  tools 
which  produce  precisely  similar  effects  to  the 
hammered-by-hand  copper-work  of  days  gone  by. 
In  the  production  of  such  work  the  repousse  en- 
richments are  wrought  by  hand,  the  anvil  still  hold- 
ing sway  in  the  modern  coppersmith’s  shop.  Rarely 
is  soldering  used,  the  parts  being  riveted  together. 
In  many  cases  although  jardinieres  and  other  vessels 
have  the  appearance  of  being  cast  in  a mould  they 
are  really  hollowed  up  under  the  rim  by  hammer  and 
block,  and  are  without  seam  or  joining.  They  are 
fashioned  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  beaten  work 
of  old.  Collectors  may  be  warned  against  these 
modern  reproductions  in  that  they  should  be  careful 
to  pay  a modern  price  for  a modern  antique. 

The  styles  reproduced  are  chiefly  those  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  particularly 
those  of  the  Elizabethan  and  Cromwellian  periods. 
Thus  electroliers  are  made  to  match  antique  furni- 
ture, the  difference  being  that  instead  of  holding 
electric  bulbs  the  antique  would  have  been  fashioned 
for  candles  or  oil  lamps.  Many  of  the  modern 
reproductions  of  copper  panels  used  for  letting  into 
mantelpieces  are  designs,  carefully  copied,  taken  from 
old  baronial  halls.  The  very  grates  of  ormolu  and 
brass  and  the  canopies  of  hammered  copper  and 
brass  are  being  made  to-day  by  the  same  firms  who 
manufactured  the  metal-work  designed  by  the  Adam 


MISCELLANEOUS  METAL  CURIOS  383 


Brothers,  and  who  in  the  eighteenth  century  had 
already~become  famous  as  makers  of  coal  stoves  and 
hob-grates.  Then,  again,  in  the  utilitarian  reproduc- 
tions of  to-day  there  are  the  copper  and  brass  fender 
kerbs,  reproducing  the  eighteenth-century  fenders 
without  their  bottom  plates,  and  for  use  with  them 
the  modern  manufacturer  makes  fire-dogs  and  fire- 
brasses  of  antique  styles.  Even  the  builder’s  brass- 
work  for  ornamenting  the  interiors  of  houses,  such  as 
finger-plates  and  door  handles,  are  exact  copies  of  the 
old  door-plates  and  lock-plates  found  on  doors  and 
cupboards  in  existing  houses  built  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  in  their  designs  and 
processes  of  manufacture  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  genuine  antique  from  the  modern  replica.  Again, 
the  buyer  of  such  things  is  warned  against  the  un- 
scrupulous dealer  who  fills  his  windows  with  brass 
and  copper-work,  almost  hot  from  the  Birmingham 
foundry,  and  labels  it  “Antique.”  Not  long  ago 
some  of  the  shop  windows  were  filled  with  chestnut 
roasters  in  brass,  with  beautifully  designed  trivets, 
with  door  knockers  innumerable,  and  with  even  pipe- 
stoppers  and  tobacco-boxes,  all  quite  recently  made 
in  the  Black  Country.  Yet  all  these  objects,  sold  as 
modern  by  the  honest  dealer,  have  been  and  are 
still  not  infrequently  palmed  off  as  antique,  for  they 
have  the  finish  which  age  in  former  years  was  wont 
to  impart,  and  in  design  and  style  they  are  correct 
reproductions  of  the  genuine  antique. 

The  collection  of  metal  has  a peculiar  charm,  for 
the  objects  are  so  numerous  and  the  different  alloys 
produce  such  a pleasing  variety  of  colour  and  appear- 


384  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


ance.  The  value  of  such  curios  is  now  more  fully 
recognized  than  formerly,  for  greater  prominence  is 
being  given  to  them  in  museums,  where  in  those 
which  have  been  re-arranged  recently  such  objects 
may  be  seen  with  labels  on  which  their  uses  are  fully 
described  and  explained. 


XX 


WRINKLES 

FOR 

COLLECTORS 


CHAPTER  XX 


WRINKLES  FOR  COLLECTORS 

Cleaning  copper  and  brass — Lacquering  metal — Polishing  brass — 
Restoring  antique  finishes — Using  the  burnisher — Brass  rubbings. 

The  collector  has  frequently  to  decide  whether  he 
will  entrust  the  repair  of  some  much  battered  curio 
to  a local  workman  or  undertake  the  role  of  an 
amateur  worker  and  repairer  of  copper  or  brass. 
There  are  many  who  prefer  the  latter  course  ; unless 
the  antique  needs  expert  skill,  and  then,  if  a valuable 
specimen,  it  should  be  sent  to  one  whose  professional 
knowledge  will  enable  him  to  carry  out  its  restoration 
without  injury.  There  are,  however,  many  minor 
matters  which,  with  a few  simple  tools,  and  recipes 
which  can  be  prepared  quite  easily,  the  collector  can 
very  satisfactorily  accomplish. 

Before  attempting  to  clean  or  repair  old  copper 
and  brass  curios  or  those  objects  which  are  made  all 
or  in  part  of  either  of  them  or  of  any  of  their  alloys, 
it  is  well  to  know  something  of  the  constituents  of 
the  metals  usually  met  with.  First  on  the  list  comes 
ancient  bronzes  composed  mainly  of  copper  and  tin 
on  no  accepted  formula,  but  generally  in  the  propor- 

19  387 


388  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


tion  of  about  three  to  one.  Modern  statuary  bronze  is 
made  in  several  proportions  ; one  compound  is  given 
by  an  authority  as  copper,  83  parts  ; tin,  5 parts  ; zinc, 
10  parts  ; and  lead,  2 parts  ; and  by  another  as  copper, 
91  parts  ; tin,  9 parts.  Bronze  ornaments  are  mostly 
copper,  80  parts  ; tin,  3 parts  ; zinc,  15  parts  ; and  lead, 
2 parts.  Gongs  are  of  copper,  80  parts  ; and  tin,  20 
parts — some  Oriental  alloys  have  a little  silver  added. 
The  ormolu  of  the  brassfounder,  used  extensively  by 
French  metal-workers,  has  more  copper  and  less  zinc 
than  brass.  Red  brass  consists  of  copper,  25  parts  ; 
zinc,  5 parts ; and  bismuth,  1 part.  Yellow  brass 
is  made  of  copper,  35  parts;  and  zinc,  15  parts. 
Pinchbeck  metal,  of  which  watchcases  and  jewellery 
have  been  made,  consists  of  copper,  10  parts ; and 
of  zinc,  2 parts.  Antimony  imparts  a rich  red  to 
copper. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  some  very  useful 
“ wrinkles  ” are  given  : 

Cleaning  Copper  and  Brass. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  warn  the  collector  against 
over  cleaning,  for  to  rub  light  bronzes  which  age  has 
toned  or  encrusted  with  a beautiful  patina  would  be 
vandalism  indeed.  Yet  there  are  many  objects  which 
require  attention  when  they  arrive  from  the  auction 
mart  or  curio-shop.  Ancient  bronzes  should  be 
washed  in  soap  and  water  with  soft  brush  or  flannel 
— not  scrubbed — and  then  dried  in  hot  sawdust. 
If  any  polishing  is  necessary,  a chamois  leather 
or  an  old  silk  handkerchief  will  be  sufficient. 


WRINKLES  FOR  COLLECTORS  389 


The  green  patina  or  verdigris  of  antique  metals 
should  not  be  removed  nor  its  colouring  spoiled  with 
cleaning. 

Copper  vessels,  however,  do  very  frequently  require 
cleaning.  When  they  have  turned  a bluish  green — 
not  the  much  admired  patina — they  may  be  cleaned 
by  making  a paste  of  well  powdered  chalk  and 
methylated  spirit.  This  preparation  should  be 
rubbed  on  and  then  left  until  the  spirit  has  evapor- 
ated and  the  chalk  is  quite  dry,  at  which  stage  it 
can  be  removed  and  the  copper  polished  with  crocus 
powder  or  fine  chalk. 

Owing  to  long  neglect  there  are  some  metal  curios 
which  cannot  be  thoroughly  cleansed  without  a 
powerful  solvent.  A weak  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
may  be  safely  applied  with  a piece  of  woollen 
material  ; it  will  remove  the  tarnish,  and  then,  after 
well  washing,  the  metal  can  be  polished  with  fine 
chalk  or  whiting.  When  the  brass  is  spotted  with 
damp  but  not  too  deeply  marked,  chalk  and  spirits 
of  turpentine  will  generally  effect  the  purpose  just 
as  well. 

Another  recipe  formerly  much  favoured  by  house- 
wives in  the  days  when  copper  vessels  were  much  in 
evidence,  is  to  rub  them  over  with  half  a lemon 
dipped  in  salt ; then  after  washing  polish  with  a 
soft  cloth.  This  is  a useful  recipe  in  that  it  does 
not  injure  an  antique  appearance  or  patina,  but  it 
will  remove  stains. 

A somewhat  more  powerful  preparation  for  metal- 
work is  a cleaning  paste  made  as  follows  : Oxalic 
acid,  i oz.  ; rotten  stone,  6 oz. ; gum  arabic,  J oz.  ; 


390  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


sweet  oil,  i oz. ; and  then  add  as  much  water  as 
necessary. 

The  following  recipe  is  given  for  the  benefit  of 
advanced  collectors  who  wish  to  avail  themselves 
of  modern  methods.  Such  will  no  doubt  delight 
in  experimenting  on  the  cleansing  of  newly  acquired 
curios  with  a cleaning  preparation  operated  by  an 
electric  current.  Caustic  soda,  \ lb.  ; sal  soda,  lb.  ; 
resin,  \ oz. ; and  water,  i gallon  ; 4 to  8 volts  and 
a current  density  of  12  amps.  The  greater  the 
density  of  the  current  the  quicker  the  cleaning  is 
performed.  A temperature  of  120  Fahr.  is  recom- 
mended. 

Lacquering  Metal. 

When  it  is  desired  to  lacquer  or  coat  over  metal 
to  prevent  any  future  oxidation  (not  commonly 
desired  by  collectors  of  antiques)  the  copper  or  brass 
article  should  be  pickled  for  several  hours  in  aqua 
fortis  diluted  with  water.  The  acid  will  rot  away  a 
certain  portion  of  the  tarnished  surface  and  leave 
the  metal  bright.  The  article  should  then  be  put 
into  bran  and  well  shaken  until  quite  dry.  It  is 
then  ready  to  be  cleaned,  and,  if  desired,  polished 
bright. 

Old  brasswork  may  be  relacquered  by  the  amateur 
with  a little  experience,  practice,  and  care.  First  of 
all  it  must  be  cleaned.  The  liquid  which  is  best 
suited  to  the  purpose  may  be  made  of  a strong  lye 
of  wood  ashes  boiled  and  strengthened  with  soap 
lees.  This  will  fetch  the  old  lacquer  off.  The  article 
should  then  be  dipped  in  aqua  fortis  and  water  to 


WRINKLES  FOR  COLLECTORS  391 


take  off  the  dirt,  and  immediately  removed  and 
cleaned  with  clean  water,  and  then  when  dried  it 
is  ready  to  be  lacquered.  There  are  two  processes 
in  simple  lacquering,  which  may  be  defined  as  cold 
and  hot.  The  cold  lacquer  is  the  application  of  a 
preparation  of  brass  lacquer,  which  can  be  purchased 
from  any  oil-shop,  chemist,  or  metal  dealer,  put 
on  with  a camelhair-brush  like  varnish,  and  imme- 
diately placed  in  an  oven  or  a hot  stove,  and  exposed 
to  the  heat  for  a few  minutes  until  the  lacquer  is 
quite  firm  and  set.  A gas-oven  such  as  those  in 
common  use  in  so  many  kitchens  nowadays  answers 
the  purpose  very  well. 

The  second  method  is  the  application  of  lacquer 
after  the  article  has  been  heated.  The  heating  may 
be  done  in  a gas-oven,  or  by  the  application  of  a 
flat-iron  such  as  is  used  by  laundresses.  Then 
lacquer  should  be  applied  hot,  and  if  the  object 
lacquered  has  cooled  in  the  process  heat  should  again 
be  applied  as  in  the  first  process.  It  should  be 
clearly  understood  that  cleaning  and  relacquering 
old  brass  and  copper-work  should  be  done  with  very 
great  care  and  with  a full  appreciation  of  the  curio 
value  of  old  finish,  and  of  the  marks  and  evidences 
of  age  which  are  so  dear  to  the  collector.  The 
pickling  of  brasswork  in  acid  and  subsequent 
lacquering  should  only  be  resorted  to  when  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  effect  such  restoration,  and 
to  make  the  objects  sufficiently  presentable  so  that 
they  may  be  included  in  a cabinet  or  exhibited  in 
the  collection  of  metal  curios ; for  the  possession  of 
old  copper  and  brass  is  nothing  without  the  oppor- 


392  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


tunity  of  showing  it.  There  are  some  specialists  who 
devote  their  attention  to  the  restoration  and  bronzing 
of  mediaeval  and  early  ecclesiastical  work.  It  may 
on  occasion  be  necessary  to  consult  such  a firm 
before  attempting  anything  which  would  savour  of 
vandalism  and  rob  the  present-day  possessor  and 
curio-hunter  of  the  future  of  what  might  eventually 
become  a rare  antiquity. 

Polishing  Brass. 

It  may  at  times  be  necessary  to  polish  parts  of 
curios  which  have  been  subjected  to  rough  wear  and 
are,  therefore,  badly  scratched.  A very  fine  file  will 
remove  scratches ; fine  emery  will  then  make  the 
surface  quite  smooth,  after  which  it  can  be  polished 
with  rotten  stone  and  oil,  some  adding  a little 
turpentine. 

Bestoring  Antique  Finishes. 

There  are  many  beautiful  antiques  which  have 
been  subjected  to  rough  usage  or  through  some 
accident  have  had  the  oxidation  rubbed  off  in  parts. 
To  clean  such  an  antique  so  as  to  secure  uniformity 
of  appearance  would  be  a mistake.  It  is  better  to 
“ restore  ” the  finish  and  imitate  that  which  age 
has  imparted.  The  solution  required  is  60  gr.  nitrate 
of  silver  and  2j  oz.  water,  mixed  with  a solution  of 
60  gr.  nitrate  of  copper  and  2\  oz.  water.  After  the 
solution  has  been  applied  to  the  parts  the  object 
should  be  heated  in  a gas-oven  until  it  is  sufficiently 
dark  coloured. 

Some  time  ago  an  expert  in  Indian  antiques, 


WRINKLES  FOR  COLLECTORS  393 


bronzes,  and  metal-work  published  in  The  Times  of 
India  an  account  of  how  Oriental  bronze  and  brass 
which  had  been  soiled  and  scratched  by  time  and 
climatic  conditions  might  be  restored.  The  writer 
went  on  to  describe  how  the  great  secret  of  restoring 
the  dull  half-green  and  half-brown  shades  had  been 
revealed  to  him.  The  remedy  he  propounded  was 
simple  in  the  extreme.  It  was  that  the  statue  should 
be  washed  in  beer,  which  should  not  be  rubbed  off 
but  allowed  to  dry  on. 

Using  the  Burnisher. 

The  amateur  restorer  may  frequently  with  advan- 
tage acquire  a knowledge  of  the  burnisher,  and 
thereby  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  metal. 
Those  who  have  watched  an  old  coppersmith  planish- 
ing copper-work,  and  have  noticed  the  very  primitive 
materials  used,  will  have  learnt  to  realize  the  value 
of  “ elbow  grease  ” Crocus  powder  with  oil  and 
soft  rags  works  wonders,  and  will  often  bring  up 
the  original  finish  just  as  the  coppersmith  converts 
the  rough  dull  polish  of  the  metal  sheets  he  has 
fashioned  into  domestic  copper  ware  and  shining 
pots  and  pans. 

Brass  Rubbings. 

Rubbings  of  church  and  memorial  brasses  referred 
to  in  Chapter  VII  may  be  taken  with  heel-ball, 
which  is  a compound  of  beeswax,  and  plain  white 
paper.  When  the  brass  has  been  evenly  rubbed  all 
over  the  picture  is  complete  and  ready  for  mounting. 
It  should  then  be  cut  out  and  pasted  on  a prepared 


394  CHATS  ON  OLD  COPPER  AND  BRASS 


surface  of  fine  canvas  or  calico,  thus  giving  the 
rubbing  an  appearance  like  tapestry.  It  can  be 
touched  up  in  colours,  if  there  is  any  heraldic 
enamelled  work  on  the  original.  It  can  then  be 
sized  and  stretched  on  a frame  ready  for  hanging 
on  a wall. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


African  curios,  309-31 1 

Alms-dishes,  140- 143 

Altar  brasses,  142- 143 

Amulets,  33,  373~375 

Ancient  art,  70-72 

Ancient  bronze,  38-41 

Aquamaniles,  101,  326 

Arab  influence,  267 

Architectural  metal-work,  1 21-124 

Arms  and  armour,  106-109 

Art  influence,  128 

Ashanti  curios,  309 

Ash-trays,  365 

Astrolabes,  25 

Badges  of  metal,  102 

Ball  and  cross  of  St.  Paul’s,  143-144 

Barometer  of  bronze,  341 

Barrows,  ancient,  25 

Bath,  56 

Battersea  enamels,  31,  357 
Bell  founding,  43 
Bell-metal,  43,  2 17-2 19 
Bells,  217-226,  282,  309 
Benares  brass  work,  280 
Benin  bronzes,  307-309 
Betel-nut  boxes,  26,  278,  282 
Betel-nut  cutters,  279 
Bidri  ware,  26,  277 
Bilston  enamels,  31 
Boadicea,  Queen,  99-91 


Boiling-pots,  98-101 
Bowls,  84 

Brass  (of  commerce),  42-43 
Brass  instruments,  340-345 
Brass  making,  45-46 
Brass  rubbings,  393 
Brasses,  26 
Brazier,  26 

Braziers’  Company,  117 
British  Museum  exhibits,  59,  65, 
168,  309,  326,  350,  356,  357 
Bronze,  27 

I Bronze  Age,  38,  66 
i Bronze  alloys,  27 
Bronze  celts,  25 
j Bronze  implements,  69 
; Bronze  knives,  25 
i Bronze  reaping-hooks,  72 
1 Bronze  saucepans,  283 
Bronzes  and  their  replicas,  249-258 
! Bronzes,  Greek,  79-81 
; Bucklers,  bronze,  28,  69 
Buckles,  105 
Bullock  bells,  279 
Burnishing  metal,  293 

Caldrons,  83,  160,  164 
Candle  clock,  208 
Candles,  199-204 

Candlesticks,  139,  140,  195-21 1, 
301 , 350 


397 


398 


INDEX 


Card  counters,  29 

Central  Africa,  curios  from,  310,  31 1 
Champleve  enamel,  30 
Chaufferette,  28,  128 
Chatties,  28 

Chimney  ornaments,  184-188 
Chinese  bronzes,  41,  42,  283-288 
Chinese  enamels,  352-355 
Chinese  influence  on  art,  13 1 
Church  brasswork,  137— 151 
Circe-perdu  process,  28,  277 
Cirencester  curios,  54 
Cisterns  and  taps,  322 
City  guilds,  116-121 
Civic  emblems,  231-235 
Classic  bronzes,  254 
Classified  arrangement,  188-191 
Cleaning  copper  and  brass,  388-390 
Clockmakers’  Company’s  collection, 
336 

Clocks,  329,  334-339 
Cloisonne  enamels,  30 
Coffee-pots,  264,  268 
Continental  copper  and  brass,  3 1 7— 
326 

Cooking-pots,  160 
Copper  as  alloy,  44-47 
Copper  mining,  44,  45 
Copper  pans,  167 
Copper  sheathing,  377 
Coppersmith,  the,  37 
Counters  of  brass,  29 
Couvre  de  feu , 29,  102 
Cromwell  clocks,  336 
Crusaders’  effigies,  26 
Crusaders’  relics,  31 1 
Cups,  271 
Curfew,  29 

Daggers,  bronze,  69 
Damascened  metals,  29,  277 


Dialling,  30 

Domestic  brasswork,  96-102 
Domestic  utensils,  155-191 
Doorknockers,  124-127 
Drinking  cups,  175 
Dutch  brasswork,  321 
Dutch  influence,  264 

Egyptian  bronzes,  267 

Ember  tongs,  30 

Enamels,  30,  42 

Enamels  on  copper,  349-358 

Engraving  on  copper,  61 

Exeter  Museum  exhibits,  183,  239 

Ewers,  277 

Fibulae,  31,  71 

Fire-making  apparatus,  87,  196-199 
Flagons,  175 
Flagstaff  head,  235 
Foot- warmers,  183,  322 
Forgeries,  74 
Founders,  217-219 
Founders,  Worshipful  Company 
of,  46,  97,  1 18,  236 
French  art,  321 

Gemellions,  101 
German  metal-work,  325,  326 
Gipcieres,  31,  106 
Greek  bronzes,  41,  42,  249 
Greek  curios,  79-92 
Guildhall  Museum  exhibits,  83,  96, 
103,  168,  183,  241,  364 
Guild  of  Loriners,  107 

Hand  basins,  326 
Handles  and  handle-plates,  367 
Hand- warmers,  28,  128 
Historic  bells,  219,  220 
Hob-grates,  178 
Hooker  bases,  31,  271 


INDEX 


399 


Horns,  232 

Horse  trappings,  370-371 
Houseplace,  the  contents  of,  175-184 
Hull  Museum  exhibits,  342 

Idols,  80,  293-298 
Indian  bronzes,  272 
Indian  Museum  exhibits,  274-280, 
294 

Indian  vessels,  28 
Inkstands,  357 
Italian  bronzes,  319 

Japanese  bronzes,  41,  42 
Japanese  enamels,  352-356 
Japanese  metals,  28 

Kaffir  bangles  and  girdles,  311 
Kashmir  curios,  278 
Kettles,  83-87,  380 
Kitchen  utensils,  159- 175 
Knockers,  368 

Lacquering  metal,  390-392 
Lagos  brasses,  309 
Lamaistic  temple  relics,  281,  297 
Lamps,  88,  92,  195-21 1,  278,  279, 
282 

Lanterns,  207-2 n 
Later  metal- work,  1 15-132 
Latten,  31 

Limoges  enamels,  30,  321,  350 
Local  museums,  59 
Lock  plates,  1 3 1 
Log  boxes,  180 

London  Museum  exhibits,  59,  70, 
71,  91,  180,  207 
London  relics,  69,  70 
Lucknow  curios,  26,  277 

Mace,  235 
Mansfield  mines,  44 


Maundy  alms-dish,  116 
Mediaeval  antiquities,  95-109 
Memorial  brasses,  144-151 
Metal  and  its  alloys,  37-49 
Microscopes,  342 
Microscopic  engravings,  381 
Milk  cans,  322 

Miniature  bronzes  and  models,  257, 

258,  345 

Miscellaneous  metal  curios,  363,  384 
Mirrors,  32,  73,  87,  267 
Monumental  brasses,  26 
Moradabad  brasswork,  280 
Mortars,  32,  226,  268 
Muff- warmers,  183 

National  Museum,  Washington,  203 
Native  metal- work,  305-31 1 
Nepal  metal-work,  274,  278 
Nomenclature  of  metals,  2 7 
Norman  remains,  57 
Nuremberg  clocks,  339 
Nutmeg  graters,  163 

Oil  lamps,  207-21 1 
Opaque  enamels,  31 
Oriental  bronzes,  265-288 

Patchboxes,  350 
Patera,  73 
Patina,  32 
Patine,  32 

Persian  metal-work,  271 
Pilgrims’  signs,  32,  103 
Pins,  105 

Pipe-stoppers,  30,  364 
Pipkins,  180 
Pocket  clocks,  334 
Polishing  brass,  392 
Porridge-pots,  163 
Portrait  placques,  358 


400 


INDEX 


Pots  and  pans,  168 
Prehistoric  bronzes,  65-75 
Pricket  candlesticks,  203 
Processes  of  enamelling,  350-351 

Replicas,  381-383 
Restoring  antiques,  392 
Ritual  vases,  301 
Roasting-jacks,  160,  167 
Roman  bronzes,  41,  249 
Roman  curios,  79-92 
Romano-British  art,  90-91 
Rushlight  holders,  200 

Saracenic  influence,  264 
Saucepans,  83,  172 
Saxon  remains,  57 
Scales,  241 

Sinhalese  metal-work,  282 
Skillets,  170 
Snuff-boxes,  350,  366 
Snuffers,  204 
Snuff-rasps,  366 
Sources  of  metals,  43,  44 
South  African  curios,  31 1 
Spanish  metal-work,  319 
Spectacle  cases,  365 
Spice-boxes,  278 
Spirit  labels,  356 
Spits,  160 
Spurs,  107 

Stafford  House  exhibits,  59 
Standard  measures,  236,  239 
Standard  weights,  240 
Statues,  89 
Statuettes,  187 
Sundials,  30,  329-334 


Tankards,  175 

Temple  vases,  298-301 

Thibet  tea-urns,  281 

Tinder-boxes,  196 

Tobacco-boxes,  364 

Toilet  requisites,  86 

Tower  of  London  exhibits,  107 

Trinkets,  104-106 

Trivets,  179 

Trumpets,  69,  321 

Turkish  metal-work,  226 

United  Service  Museum  exhibits, 
220,  379 

United  States  National  Museum, 
210 

Verulamium  curios,  54 
Victoria  & Albert  Museum  exhibits, 
59,  84,  101 , 126,  131,  139,  180, 
183,  220,  250,  268,  298,  318, 
321,  342,  375 

Wallace  collection  exhibits,  109 
Warming-pans,  180,  183 
Watches,  339 

Watchmen’s  lanterns,  208,  21 1 
Water  jars,  227 
Weather-vanes,  33,  123 
Weighing  instruments,  236-239 
Weights  and  measures,  242-245 
Welsh  National  Museum  exhibits, 
59 

Winchester  bushel,  236 
Winchester  moot  horn,  232 
Winchester  Museum  exhibits,  236 
Wrinkles  for  collectors,  387-393 
Writing  boxes,  264 


UNWIN  BROTHERS,  LIMITED,  THE  GRESHAM  PRESS,  WOKING  AND  LONDON 


GETTY  RESEARCH  INSTITUTE 


3 3125  01380  2679 

k .y;.  ■ ' ^v-1  ■ ~~T 


